First published by:
United Nations Environment Programme EAS/RCU
10th Floor UNESCAP Building
Rajdamnern Avenue, Bangkok, Thailand 10200
Prepared for publication by Yihang Jiang and Hugh Kirkman,
UNEP EAS/RCU
Printed and bound in Thailand by : PK. Printers
Library of Congress Cataloguing
ISBN 92-807-1906-8
EAS/RCU TRS. No.14
No use of this publication may be made for resale or any
other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior
permission in writing from the United Nations
Environment Programme.
The boundaries and names shown and the designations
used on the maps in this publication do not imply
official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
For bibliographic purposes this document may be cited as:
Talaue-McManus, L. 2000. Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis for the South China Sea.
EAS/RCU Technical Report Series No. 14. UNEP, Bangkok, Thailand.

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EAST ASIAN SEAS
REGIONAL COORDINATING UNIT
UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME
Transboundary Diagnostic
Analysis
for the South China Sea
Compiled by:
Liana Talaue-McManus
Marine Science Institute
University of the Philippines
Diliman, Quezon City,
Philippines
EAS/RCU TECHNICAL REPORTS SERIES NO.
14

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UNEP SCS/TDA
PREFACE
Countries of the South China Sea do not exist in isolation nor are they able to retain
the impacts of their activities within their national boundaries. The environment is not
checked by national boundaries nor is it a limitless resource that can be exploited without
restraint. It becomes obvious, as this report is read and understood that the countries
bordering the South China Sea have exploited the coastal resources far beyond their
capacities and that, without some intervention now, they will be destroyed forever. Marine
biodiversity, carbon sequestration, nursery areas for fisheries, buffer zones from the ravages
of storms are all being lost and the plunder continues. This report is an inventory of the
cross-boundary pollution and destruction of marine habitats that covers the South China
Sea.
The national transboundary diagnostic analysis reports of seven countries
participating in the Global Environment Facility South China Sea Project were analysed and
summarised to prepare this report. The countries concerned are Cambodia, China,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam. For only two of these, Viet Nam
and Cambodia, are the entire coastlines used in the report. For the others, only the coast
that borders the South China Sea is included. Ideally, the country reports from which this
report was compiled were prepared under the same guidelines, for some countries this was
not so easily done nor rigidly adhered to, the result being lack of data or inconsistent data.
The national TDAs are available from UNEP EAS/RCU.
This report, contained the most up to date information available from the participating
countries, including major environmental problems in the South China Sea, transboundary
analysis and sources and causes of these problems. It is a useful document for preparing
project proposals, reporting on the state of the environment and as a general guide to the
use and misuse of the coastal waters of the South China Sea. Environmental planners,
managers and academics may find this report useful for case studies and for data.
Hugh Kirkman
Coordinator, East Asian Seas Regional Coordinating Unit
Acknowledgements
Many people made great efforts to assist with this report. The government advisers
and experts met three times and communicated with the author on numerous occasions.
Staff of the East Asian Seas Regional Coordinating Unit including Mr. Yihang Jiang, Dr.
Hugh Kirkman, Mr. Shutao Cao and Khun Unchalee Kattachan put in efforts beyond the call
of duty to ensure the most up to date and well presented data were added. Dr. Kirkman
edited the report. The maps were provided by Dr. Anond Snidvongs from the data base at
START, for which we are very grateful.
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UNEP SCS/TDA
TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS
FOR THE SOUTH CHINA SEA
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
BACKGROUND

1
1.1
GLOBAL AND REGIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SOUTH CHINA SEA AND ITS ASSOCIATED
FRESHWATER CATCHMENTS ............................................................................................... 1
1.2
PURPOSE OF THE TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA).......................................... 2
1.3
PROCESS OF THE TDA...................................................................................................... 2
2
BIOPHYSICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC SETTING OF THE SOUTH CHINA SEA AND ITS
ASSOCIATED FRESHWATER CATCHMENTS


3
2.1
PHYSICAL SETTING........................................................................................................... 3
2.1.1
Geographic subdivisions used in the TDA................................................................. 3
2.1.2
Geomorphology and geological history ..................................................................... 8
2.1.3
Circulation .............................................................................................................. 8
2.2
BIOGEOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................... 9
2.2.1
Biogeographic distributions...................................................................................... 9
2.2.2
Evolutionary relationships ...................................................................................... 10
2.3
SOCIO-ECONOMIC FEATURES ........................................................................................... 11
2.3.1
Demographic patterns ........................................................................................... 11
2.3.2
Regional economic characteristics......................................................................... 12
3
STATE OF ENVIRONMENT
14
3.1
MODIFICATION OF HABITATS............................................................................................. 15
3.1.1
Mangroves ........................................................................................................... 15
3.1.2
Coral reefs ........................................................................................................... 21
3.1.3
Seagrasses .......................................................................................................... 33
3.2
OVEREXPLOITATION OF LIVING AQUATIC RESOURCES ........................................................... 37
3.2.1
Status of inland capture fisheries and culture production.......................................... 37
3.2.2
Status of marine capture fisheries and coastal aquaculture...................................... 38
3.2.3
Status of the capture fisheries potential in the South China Sea............................... 40
3.2.4
Status of large pelagics: the case of tunas .............................................................. 41
3.2.5
Immediate causes of overexploitation by country .................................................... 42
3.2.6
Transboundary issues associated with overexploitation ........................................... 42
3.3
POLLUTION OF AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS ............................................................................ 51
3.3.1
Overview of ranked sources of pollution ................................................................. 51
3.3.2
Domestic wastewater............................................................................................ 53
3.3.3
Agricultural waste.................................................................................................. 55
3.3.4
Industrial waste..................................................................................................... 56
3.3.5
Sediments............................................................................................................ 57
3.3.6
Solid wastes ......................................................................................................... 59
3.3.7
Oil and other hydrocarbons from land and sea-based sources ................................. 60
3.3.8
Atmospheric sources............................................................................................. 64
3.3.9
River systems....................................................................................................... 65
3.3.10 Pollution hot spots, high-risk and sensitive areas ...................................................... 67
3.3.11
Transboundary issues associated with pollution...................................................... 71
4
REFERENCES
99
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UNEP SCS/TDA
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1
The countries of the South China Sea
Figure 2
Mangroves in each sub-division of the South China Sea
Figure 3
Known distribution of coral reefs in the South China Sea
categorized by the degree of human threats
Figure 4
Known distribution of seagrass in the South China Sea
Figure 5
Biochemical oxygen demand loading from domestic sources
in each sub-division in the South China Sea
Figure 6
Pollution "Hot Spots" in the South China Sea
Figure 7
Total nitrogen loading in sub-divisions in the South China Sea
Figure 8
High risk areas for oil pollution in the South China Sea
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1
Preliminary ranking of major concerns and principal issues for the South
China Sea
Table 2.1
Geographic subdivisions of the TDA-participating countries which interact
with the South China Sea
Table 2.2
Geographic subdivisions of the TDA-participating countries which interact

with the South China Sea. (Summary)
Table 2.3
Demographic and economic parameters by subdivisions in TDA participating
countries.
Table 2.4
Summary of demographic and economic parameters
Table 2.5
Current and projected fish consumption
Table 2.6
Share of selected South China Sea countries in world exports of fishery
products, in USD 1,000
Table 2.7
Share of selected South China Sea countries in world imports of fishery
products, in USD 1,000
Table 3.1
Loss and causes of mangrove destruction
Table 3.2
Transboundary issues resulting from mangrove destruction
Table 3.3
Biodiversity associated with mangroves
Table 3.4
Endangered species occurring in mangroves in Southeast Asia
Table 3.5
Production of cultured shrimp
Table 3.6
Importation by major Asian markets of shrimp from participating countries,
1994
Table 3.7
World shrimp culture areas and annual production by culture system,
1992-1993
Table 3.8
Export of mangrove derived wood products
Table 3.9
Extent of coral reef degradation in participating countries
Table 3.10 Estimates of reef area and level of vulnerability to three risk levels
Table 3.11
Immediate causes of coral reef degradation
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UNEP SCS/TDA
Table 3.12 Transboundary issues associated with degradation of coral reefs
Table 3.13 Biodiversity associated with coral reefs
Table 3.14
Annual nesting of marine turtles in Terengganu
Table 3.15
Exploitation of hawksbill turtles in Viet Nam, 1993
Table 3.16 Worldwide export of raw tortoise shell (kg)
Table 3.17
Worldwide imports of raw tortoise shell (kg), 1976-1978
Table 3.18
Tourist visits in South China Sea-regions of the participating countries
Table 3.19 Growth in tourism in ASEAN countries, 1985-1992
Table 3.20
Coral trade by exporting/reexporting countries, 1986-1989
Table 3.21
Coral shipments from the Philippines in 1992
Table 3.22
Average annual trade of Indonesian corals for the top 15 recipient countries,
1985-1995
Table 3.23
Trade of marine aquarium fish from Indonesia and Philippines
Table 3.24 Extent of damage and causes of degraded seagrass meadows
Table 3.25
Transboundary issues resulting from degradation of seagrass habitats
Table 3.26 Biodiversity associated with seagrass beds in the South China Sea
Table 3.27
Shared biodiversity among mangroves, seagrasses and coral reefs
Table 3.28 Seagrass-based fisheries in Southeast Asia
Table 3.29 Salient features of the seahorse trade
Table 3.30
Inland capture and production in seven participating countries
Table 3.31 Marine production in seven partipating South China Sea countries
Table 3.32
Degree of exploitation in capture fisheries and the potential for expansion in
culture production
Table 3.33 Fisheries potential of the South China Sea
Table 3.34
Small pelagic fisheries in the South China Sea, 1978-1993
Table 3.35
World production of principal tuna species by principal fishing nations, 1988-
1993 (103 mt)
Table 3.36 Immediate causes of overexploited coastal fisheries in participating South
China Sea countries
Table 3.37 Transboundary issues on overexploitation
Table 3.38
Fish requirements in selected South China Sea countries for the year 2005
Table 3.39
Share of selected South China Sea countries in world exports of fishery
products, in USD 1,000
Table 3.40
Share of selected South China Sea countries in world imports of fishery
products, in USD 1,000
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UNEP SCS/TDA
Table 3.41
Exports of canned tuna, 1990-1993
Table 3.42
Percentage of production exported by leading producers of canned tuna,
1990 to 1993
Table 3.43
Comparison of domestic use and catch by principal markets, 1990-93 (103 mt)
Table 3.44
Commercial elasmobranch fisheries in South China Sea countries
(1950-1991) (103 mt)
Table 3.45
Shark and ray species landed in South China Sea countries
Table 3.46
Philippine exports of shark fins, shark liver oil and non-modified chemical
fractions, 1993-1994
Table 3.47
Thailand shark fin trade, exports and imports in 1994
Table 3.48 Ranked sources of pollution among participating countries
in the South China Sea
Table 3.49 Generation of BOD by participating South China Sea countries
Table 3.50 Use of fertilizers and pesticides in South China Sea countries
Table 3.51 Industrial waste discharges from coastal and non-coastal installations
Table 3.52 Estimated disposal of toxic substances (106 t)
Table 3.53 Land clearance in selected countries
Table 3.54
Solid waste from domestic sources
Table 3.55 Components of solid waste
Table 3.56 Extent of oil pollution in the TDA participating countries
Table 3.57 Relative contribution of different sources to oil pollution
Table 3.58
Oil demand by selected countries
Table 3.59 Atmospheric pollution in TDA participating countries
Table 3.60
Composition of precipitation in Indonesia and Thailand
Table 3.61
Pollutant fluxes from rivers of TDA participating countries
to the South China Sea
Table 3.62 Status of river systems in TDA participating countries
Table 3.63 Pollution hot spots in TDA participating countries
Table 3.64
Areas at high risk (HR) and sensitive (S) to pollution in the TDA participating
countries
Table 3.65
Transboundary issues associated with pollution in TDA participating countries
Table 3.66 Sharing of Mekong River Basin water resources
Table 3.67 Water quality assessment of the Mekong River Basin
Table 3.68 Transboundary river systems in Viet Nam
Table 3.69 Transboundary transport of waste for recycling from USA
Table 3.70
Status of wetlands and associated biodiversity
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Page 1
1
BACKGROUND
1.1
Global and regional significance of the South China Sea and its associated
freshwater catchments
The South China Sea is a strategic body of water that is surrounded by nations that
are currently at the helm of industrialization and rapid economic growth in the Asia-Pacific
region. Bordered by the People's Republic of China to the north, the Republic of the
Philippines to the east; Malaysia, the Republic of Singapore, the Republic of Indonesia and
the Sultanate of Brunei to the south; the Kingdom of Thailand, the Kingdom of Cambodia
and the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam to the west; the South China Sea has always been
central to issues of economic and political stability in Southeast Asia and adjacent regions.
Today, it is central to defining environmental sustainability and food security for its coastal
nations.
Seven littoral states are included in this analysis which is aimed at identifying and
weighting water-related problems and concerns in the South China Sea. These are China,
Viet Nam, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. The coastal
subregions of these nations are home to 270,000,000 people or 5% of the world's
population. About 122 major rivers drain 2.5 X 106 km2 of catchment area and deliver
materials, nutrients and pollutants to the South China Sea (data compiled from National TDA
Reports).
The Indo-West Pacific marine biogeographic province has long been recognized as
the global center of marine tropical biodiversity. Forty-five mangrove species out of a global
total of 51 (Spalding et al., 1997); 50 of 70 coral genera (Tomascik et al., 1997); 20 of 50
seagrasses species (Sudara et al., 1994); and 7 of 9 giant clam species (Tomascik et al.,
1997), are found in the nearshore areas of the South China Sea. Compared to the Atlantic,
the tropical Indo-West Pacific is highly diverse. Only 5 mangrove species and some 35 coral
species are found in the Atlantic compared with 45 mangrove and over 450 coral species
recorded from the Philippines, 200 from the Red Sea, 117 from South East India and 57
from the Persian Gulf.
Recent estimates suggest that approximately 2 million hectares of mangrove forest
or 12% of the world total are located in the countries bordering the South China Sea. This
represents only 31% of the estimated total found in these countries at the start of this
century (National TDA Reports). Estimated rates of loss in each country range from around
0.5 to 3.5% of the total area per annum and at these present rates could result in total loss of
this habitat in the region by around 2030. Chou et al., (1994) estimate that 82% of the coral
reefs surveyed in the South China Sea display evidence of degradation while Bryant et al.,
(1998) suggest that 50% of the Philippine and 85% of Indonesian reefs are at high risk.
Comparable estimates for degradation of seagrass habitats are not available but are unlikely
to be as high as this.
The high species diversity of the shallow water habitats in this region combined with
the variation in geomorphic and geological settings, and formation types, contribute to the
global significance of these habitats.

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UNEP SCS/TDA
Page 2
This richness in flora and fauna is accompanied by the area's high natural
productivity. Capture fisheries from the South China Sea contribute 10% of the world's
landed catch at approx. 5 X 106 tons year-1 (Pauly and Christensen, 1993). From the
standpoint of aquaculture, five of the eight top shrimp producers in the world, are border
states of the South China Sea. These are Indonesia (first), Viet Nam (second), China (third),
Thailand (sixth), and the Philippines (eighth) (Menasveta, 1997).
The richness and productivity of the South China Sea and associated environments
are, however, seriously threatened by high population growth, pollution, overharvest and
habitat modification, resulting in high rates of habitat loss and impairment of the regenerative
capacities of living resources. The socio-economic impacts of environmental deterioration
are significant for the newly developed economies of this region. While GDP is newly
dominated by the industry and service sectors, food consumption patterns rely heavily on
cheap protein derived from fishery resources. The agriculture sector (including fisheries)
remains a source of significant revenue and an important domestic source of food.
1.2
Purpose of the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA)
The transboundary diagnostic analysis of the South China Sea and its associated
catchment areas, is a process that focuses on identifying water-related problems and
concerns, their socio-economic root causes, and the sectoral implications of actions needed
to mitigate them. The analysis further seeks to determine those issues which have
transboundary, i.e. involves more than one country, causes and/or impacts, appropriate
mitigation of which will have to be done on a regional or bilateral basis. The analysis then
becomes the basis for a strategic action program which is coordinated both at the national
and regional levels.
1.3
Process of the TDA
In this TDA, national committees were formed through the initiative of the UNEP
national focal points in each of the seven countries. Headed by a coordinator, each national
committee was asked to prepare a country report that would provide a country-based
analysis of water-related problems and concerns. To brief the seven coordinators, a first
meeting was held in March 1997, during which the outline of the country reports was
prepared and accepted by the group.
The first drafts of the national reports were submitted and evaluated prior to a second
meeting of the national coordinators that was held in June, 1998. During this meeting, and
on the basis of the causal chain analysis done by each country for each identified water-
related problem, a weighting of all identified major issues was made en banc by the national
coordinators and invited scientists from the region. The weighted issues and problems are
shown in Table 1.1.

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UNEP SCS/TDA
Page 3
Table 1.1 Preliminary ranking of major concerns and principal issues for the South China
Sea (Annex V, Second Coordinators Meeting, June 1998.)
Major Concerns
Score
Rank
Principal Issues
Score
Rank
Habitat
18.5
1
Mangroves
21
1
Coral Reef
20
2
Seagrasses
17
6
Estuaries
16
7
Over exploitation
17.5
2
Marine
19
3
Freshwater
16
7
Pollution
14
3
Sewage
19
3
Freshwater
17.5
5
Contamination
Agricultural loading
15
9
Industrial Waste
15
9
Sedimentation
14
11
Solid Waste
13
12
Hydrocarbon
12
13
Ship-based sources
12
13
Atmospheric
8.5
16
Freshwater concerns
9
15
The identified regional concerns and principal issues became the foci for the
preparation of the outline for this regional transboundary diagnostic analysis, which like the
outline for the national reports, was deliberated upon and accepted by the national
coordinators and the regional resource persons. Along with the preparation of the TDA
outline, the substance of the strategic action programme was discussed.
The national reports, the transboundary diagnostic analysis and the strategic action
programme are key elements in a project development activity under the Global
Environment Facility (GEF) International Waters Portfolio. A project brief was developed in
this analytical and participatory process, that provided mechanisms for the implementation of
actions addressing the major water-related issues in the South China Sea.
2
BIOPHYSICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC SETTING OF THE SOUTH CHINA SEA
AND ITS ASSOCIATED FRESHWATER CATCHMENTS
2.1
Physical setting
2.1.1 Geographic subdivisions used in the TDA
The countries and watersheds relevant to the South China Sea and this report are
shown in Fig. 1. The detailed geographic subdivisions used in the TDA are shown in Table
2.1, and a summary of pertinent statistics are indicated in Table 2.2. The subdivisions
include 93 cities, each with a population of more than 100,000. Approximately 122 rivers
running through the seven participating countries, and draining a total catchment area of 2.5
million km2, empty into the South China Sea. The area of watershed drained by the rivers is
almost twice that of the total area of the subregions, since a number of rivers such as six
which enter the Viet Namese coastal waters, are transboundary.

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UNEP SCS/TDA
Page 4
Figure 1 The countries of the South China Sea.
National boundaries and shoreline are shown by solid lines.

Shaded areas represent sub-divisions where data were analyzed in the TDA.

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Page 5
Table 2.1 Geographic subdivisions of the TDA-participating countries which interact with the
South China Sea.
Country/
Major Cities
Major rivers
Watershed
Area of
Population of
Subregion
area
subregion
subregion
( 103 km2)
(103 km2)
(103)
Cambodia:
1997
Koh Kong
Koh Kong
Stung Metoek
1.14
11.16
105
Stung Russei
2.73
Chrum
Stung Sala
1.57
Munthun
Stung Chhay
2.11
Areng
Sihanouk Ville
Sihanouk Ville
Prek Piphot
1.16
0.87
132
Prek Kompong
2.64
Som
Kompot
Kompot
Prek Toeuk
2.06
5.21
603
Chhou
Subtotal
3 cities
7 rivers
13.41
17.24
840
China:
1995
Guangdong
Chaozhou,
Han
30.11
83.33
47,919
Shantou,
Rong
4.41
Jieyang,
Pearl
442.10
Shanwei,
Moyang
6.09
Huizhou,
Jian
6.09
Shenzhen,
Dongguan,
Guangzhou,
Zhongshan,
Zhuhai,
Jiangmen,
Yangjiang,
Maoming,
Zhanjiang
Guangxi
Beihai,
Nanliu
8.64
20.36
5,088
Qingzhou,
Qing
2.46
Fangcheng
Maoling
2.96
Port
Hainan
Haikou,
Nandu
7.02
33.92
5,733
Sanya
Changhua
5.15
Wanquanhe
3.69
Hong Kong
Hong Kong
None
None
1.07
6,190
Macau
Macau
None
None
0.02
424
Subtotal
21 cities
11 rivers
518.72
138.70
65,354
Indonesia
1994
Riau-Batam
Tanjung
none
none
94.56
3,648
Pinang
Bangka-
Pangkal
Musi
9.13
103.69
6,997
Belitung and
Pinang,
South
Palembang
Sumatera
Jakarta and
Jakarta
Ciliwung-
2.24
46.89
47,547
West Java
Cisadne

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Page 6
Continued Table 2.1
Country/
Major Cities
Major rivers
Watershed
Area of
Population of
Subregion
area
subregion
subregion
(103 km2)
(103 km2)
(103)
East Java
Surabaya
Brantas
12.00
47.92
34,758
South
Banjarmasin
Barito River
32.00
37.66
2,804
Kalimantan
West
Pontianak
Kapuas River
5.00
146.76
3,616
Kalimantan
Subtotal
7 cities
5 rivers
60.37
477.48
99,370
Malaysia
1991
Kelantan
Kota Bharu
3 rivers
15.02
14.92
1,208
Terengganu
Kuala
9 rivers
12.97
13.00
809
Terengganu
Pahang
Kuantan
5 rivers
42.24
35.97
1,081
Johor
Johor Baru
4 rivers
7.44
18.99
2,162
Sabah
Kota Kinabalu
11 rivers
31.31
73.62
1,809
Sarawak
Kuching
19 rivers
122.45
123.98
1,718
Subtotal
6 cities
51 rivers
231.43
280.48
8,787
Philippines
1995
Western
Laoag,
Laoag
1.32
29.27
22,653
Luzon
Dagupan,
Abra
5.12
Olongapo,
Agno
5.95
Metropolitan
Pampanga
9.76
Manila
Pasig-
5.28
(7 cities)
Marikina-
San Pablo,
Laguna de
Cavite,
Bay
Batangas
Mindoro
none
none
5.88
339
Occidental
Palawan
Puerto
none
none
14.90
640
Princesa
Subtotal
16 cities
5 rivers
27.43
50.05
23,632
Thailand
1997
Northern
Chiang Mai,
Salawin
17.9
171.50
12,091
Nakorn Sawan
Ping
33.90
Kok
7.89
Wang
10.79
Yom
23.62
Nan
34.33
Khong
57.42
Central
Bangkok,
Chao Phraya
20.12
64.04
14,350
Nonthaburi,
Sakakrang
5.19
Patumthani,
Pasak
16.29
Samut Prakan,
Ta Chine
13.68
Samut Sakorn,
Saraburi
Eastern
Chonburi,
Prachine buri
10.48
36.50
4,065
Rayong
Tonlasap
4.15
Eastern coastal
13.83

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Page 7
Continued Table 2.1
Country/
Major Cities
Major rivers
Watershed
Area of
Population of
Subregion
area
subregion
subregion
(103 km2)
(103 km2)
(103)
Southern
Surathani,
Eastern coastal
26.35
49.89
6,636
Nakorn Sri-
of South
Thammarat,
Tapee
12.22
Songkhla,
Songkhla
8.49
Hatyai
Reservoir
Pattanee
3.86
Subtotal
14 cities
18 rivers
320.51
321.93
37,142
Viet Nam
1996
Northern
Quang Ninh
Bang Giang
4.56
5.94
813
Mountains
Kycung
6.66
Red River
Hai Phong
Thao
51.75
6.81
6,354
Delta and
Thai Binh
Da
52.61
Midlands
Nam Ha
Lo
38.97
Ninh Binh
Red
154.72
Cau
6.06
Thuong
3.58
Luc Nam
3.07
Thai Binh
15.52
Central
Thanh Hoa,
Ma
28.37
51.22
8,500
Coastal
Nghe An, Ha
Chu
7.55
Region
Tinh, Quang
Ngan Sau
3.81
Binh, Quang
Hieu
5.33
Tri, Thua
Ca
27.22
Thien Hue,
Tra Khuc
3.18
Quang Nam-
Ve
1.26
Da Nang,
Ba
13.81
Quang Ngai,
Binh Dinh,
Phu Yen,
Khanh Hoa,
Ninh Thuan,
Binh Thuan
South Central
Ho Chi Minh,
Dong Nai
29.52
49.82
11,314
Ba ria-Vung
La Nga
4.00
Tau
Be
8.20
Sai Gon
5.56
Mekong Delta
Tien Giang,
Se San
17.5
24.16
6,076
Ben Tre, Tra
Sre Pock
18.28
Vinh, Soc
Cuu Long
65.00
Trang, Kien
(Mekong)
(777.00)
Giang, Minh
Hai
Subtotal
26 cities
25 rivers
576.09
137.95
33,057
(1353.09)

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Table 2.2 Geographic subdivisions of the TDA-participating countries which interact with the
South China Sea. (Summary)
Country
Major Cities
Major rivers
Watershed
Area of South
Population of
(>100,000
area
China Sea
subregion
population)
( 103 km2)
subregion
(103)
(103 km2)
Cambodia
3 cities
7 rivers
13.41
17.24
840
China (includes
21 cities
11 rivers
518.72
137.70
65,354
Hong Kong &
Macau)
Indonesia
7 cities
5 rivers
60.37
477.48
99,370
Malaysia
6 cities
51 rivers
231.43
280.48
8,787
Philippines
16 cities
5 rivers
27.43
50.05
23,632
Thailand
14 cities
18 rivers
320.51
321.93
37,142
Viet Nam
26 cities
25 rivers
1,353.09
137.95
33,057
Total
93 cities
122 rivers
1,422. 83
2,524.96
268,182
2.1.2 Geomorphology and geological history
The Indian subcontinent collided with the Eurasian plate in the Late Eocene, and led
to the rifting of the Sunda Shelf including Borneo, the Malaysian Peninsula and Palawan
microplate. The rift is hypothesized to be the origin of the northwest sub-basin of the South
China Sea (Brias et al., 1993; Taponnier et al., 1982). North-south spreading occurred 27 to
16 Ma causing the formation of the eastern sub-basin of this marginal sea. The southwest
sub-basin was formed 20 Ma, and spreading ceased around 15.5 Ma.
2.1.3 Circulation
Two basic features characterize circulation in the South China Sea. The first is the
Indonesian throughflow of Pacific waters which interact with those influenced by the Indian
Ocean while in the South China Sea. It is, in fact, a warmwater closure of global
thermohaline circulation that is significant in distributing sea surface temperature as well as
in providing for the air-sea fluxes of heat (Tomascik et al., 1997).
A second feature is a surface circulation that is heavily influenced by the Asian
monsoon system, which affects the social and economic conditions of over 60% of the
world's population (South China Sea Monsoon Experiment (South China SeaMEX) Science
Plan, 1994). Surface currents flow north to south along the Viet Nam coast to the Java Sea
during the northeast winds which blow from October to February (Wrytki, 1961). The flow
reverses south to north along the western margin of the South China Sea during the
southwest monsoon beginning in June.
The monsoonal system results from the location of the sea next to the land masses
of Asia and Australia (Tomascik et al., 1997). Two opposing monsoons converge along the
Inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ). This zone is displaced north or south depending on
solar heating, driving the seasonal change from one monsoon to another. In December to
January, there is high pressure over Asia and low pressure over Australia, pushing the ITCZ
further south, and causing air to blow north to south. In June, pressure over Australia
increases, and decreases over Asia, causing the ITCZ to shift north of the equator; and
signaling the onset of the southwest monsoon.

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A transition period occurs in March when the ITCZ is on the equator on its way
northward, and when the Asian high weakens. Another slack period occurs in September
with the weakening of the Australian high, and the movement of the ITCZ on the equator
southwards.
The monsoonal system in the South China Sea modulates seasonal changes in
pressure and interannual variability imposed by the El Ni ­ Southern Oscillation.
The
arrival of Rossby waves carrying a warm water pool to the western margin of the equatorial
Pacific is buffered by the South China Sea system. The consequences of extreme climatic
changes resulting from this connection are dramatic for the resources and economies of the
South China Sea states.
2.2
Biogeography
2.2.1 Biogeographic distributions
Mangroves. Mangroves occupy the humid tropical belt 30° north and south of the
equator, with extensions beyond these latitudes in certain areas (Spalding et al., 1997). Two
main centers of diversity have been identified. The eastern group includes the Indo-Pacific
with its eastern limits in the central Pacific, and the western limits, along the southern tip of
Africa. The western group includes mangroves found along the African and American coasts
of the Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, and the Pacific coastal areas
of the Americas. The eastern group has about five times the species diversity recorded in
the western region. Within this group, South and Southeast Asia contain 42 % of the global
area occupied by mangroves, and harbor the highest diversity of mangrove species in the
world.
Corals. Hermatypic or reef-forming scleractinian corals are widespread in the
equatorial seas. Generic richness is highest (about 70 genera) in the Indo-Pacific center of
diversity, which extends from the central Red Sea to east of Fiji (Veron, 1995). Species
diversity is highest at around 450 species in the equatorial central Indo-Pacific defined by
Sumatra and Java in the southwest; by Sabah and the Philippines in the northwest; and by
the Philippines, eastern Indonesia and Papua New Guinea in the northeast. One-fourth of
the world's charted reefs are located in this region of highest species coral diversity. Eighty
percent of the reefs of Southeast Asia are exposed to medium and high risks imposed by
coastal development, marine pollution, over-exploitation and destructive fishing, and land-
based pollution and erosion (Bryant et al., 1998).
Seagrasses. Generic richness of seagrasses is also centered in the Indo-West
Pacific region (Heck and McCoy, 1978). Species diversity is highest in Malesia, a region
defined by Indonesia, Borneo, Papua New Guinea and northern Australia. East Asia harbors
the second highest number of seagrass species at 20 of 50 recorded species worldwide
(Fortes, 1994, 1995; Sudara et al., 1994).

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2.2.2 Evolutionary relationships
The biogeographic distributions of flora and fauna are consequences of evolutionary
and ecological processes in geological history. Two types of geological events brought this
about in the South China Sea region. The breaking off of microcontinents from eastern
Gondwana which now form South East Asia and the northern portion of New Guinea, is
believed to be a significant mechanism in transporting tropical fauna as these plates moved
north and westward (Tomascik et al., 1997).
The second event was the formation of land connections and sea barriers, both of
which act to impede larval dispersal, thus fragmenting species ranges and enhancing
genetic isolation. A land barrier was created during the Cretaceous, connecting Laurasia to
Australia. Another such barrier was formed with the collision between Sulawesi and Sula
Peninsuls during the mid-Miocene, and created a continuous land mass between Laurasian
Borneo and Gondwana New Guinea (12 MA to late Pliocene).
Geologically, two major theories are proposed to explain biogeographic affinities.
Vicariance theory (McCoy and Heck, 1976) states that biota may have a historically wide
range, which is modified by tectonic events, speciation and extinction. They used this theory
in discussing relationships among seagrass, coral and mangrove species. Another theory
called the Center of Origin theory, indicates that organisms increase their ranges by
dispersal from a central point (Den Hartog, 1970).
For Veron (1995), the two are not mutually exclusive and both can be used in
explaining coral affinities. He states that at the species level, the central Indo-Pacific is the
center of diversity. Along a latitudinal gradient, there are sequences showing gradients from
very high to very low species diversity, connected by boundary currents which flow
poleward, taking equatorial propagules to high latitudes. The export of diversity from the
equator can happen along evolutionary or ecological time frames. The evolutionary time
frame seems to have an increasing influence eastward across the Pacific.
For mangroves, Spalding et al., (1997) state that distributions are largely relic and
state that an eastern Tethys Sea origin seems to be suggested by fossils. Dispersal
proceeded across the Pacific, and perhaps through the Panama gap into the Atlantic.

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2.3
Socio-economic features
2.3.1 Demographic patterns
Table 2.3 Demographic and economic parameters by subdivisions in TDA participating
countries
Country/
Area
Population
Annual
GDP
%GDP-
%GDP-
Sub-region
(103
(103)
population
(growth
Agriculture
Industry
km2)
growth rate
rate/y)
(growth
(growth
(%)
(106 USD)
rate/y)
rate/y)
(106 USD)
(106 USD)
Cambodia
(1996-1997)
Koh Kong
11.16
105
8.33
Sihanouk Ville
0.87
132
3.89
Kampot
5.21
603
5.47
Subtotal
17.24
840
5.58
0.12 (7%)
45 (1.5)
20 (14.1)
(national)
(national)
(national)
China
(1996)
Guangdong
83.33
48,563
1.64
70,349
12.5 (8.1)
40 (nd)
Guangxi
20.36
5,148
1.29
2,989
40 (8.3)
20 (nd)
Hainan
33.92
5,983
1.55
4,177
34 (8.9)
21 (nd)
Subtotal
137.61
59,694
1.60
77,515
16
41
Indonesia
(1995-1996)
Riau & Batam
94.56
3,647
3.70
8,519
Nd
Nd
Bangka-Belitung
103.69
6,997
3.02
5,827
Nd
Nd
& South Sumatra
Jakarta & West
94.81
47,547
2.89
59,272
Nd
Nd
Java
S. Kalimantan
37.66
2,804
2.33
2,456
Nd
Nd
W. Kalimantan
146.76
3,617
2.50
2,856
Nd
Nd
Subtotal
477.48
99,370
2.90
78,930
13 (nd)
38 (nd)
(national)
(national)
Malaysia
(1996)
Kelantan
14.92
1,208
2.7
Nd
Nd
Nd
Terengganu
13.00
808
3.7
Nd
Nd
Nd
Pahang
35.97
1,081
2.8
Nd
Nd
Nd
Johor
18.99
2,162
2.5
Nd
Nd
Nd
Sabah
73.62
1,809
5.5
Nd
Nd
Nd
Sarawak
123.98
1,718
2.5
Nd
Nd
Nd
Subtotal
280.47
8,787
3.3
86,420
Nd
Nd
(national)
Continued Table 2.3

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UNEP SCS/TDA
Page 12
Country/
Area
Population
Annual
GDP
%GDP-
%GDP-
Sub-region
(103 km2)
(103)
population
(growth
Agriculture
Industry
growth rate
rate/y)
(growth
(growth
(%)
(106 USD)
rate/y)
rate/y)
(106 USD)
(106 USD)
Philippines
(1996)
West Luzon
29.27
22,653
2.1
Nd
Nd
Nd
Mindoro Is.
5.88
340
3.5
Nd
Nd
Nd
Palawan Is
14.90
640
3.7
Nd
Nd
Nd
Subtotal
50.05
23,633
2.1
87,864
21 (nd)
32 (nd)
(national)
(national)
(national)
Thailand
(1997)
North
171.50
12,091
0.9
3,609
50 (nd)
33 (nd)
Central
64.04
14,350
1.4
62,532
4 (nd)
35 (nd)
East
36.50
4,065
1.8
10,248
12 (nd)
56 (nd)
South
49.89
6,636
1.8
7,455
36 (nd)
8 (nd)
Subtotal
321.93
37,142
1.4
83,844
10 (nd)
35 (nd)
Viet Nam
Northern
5.94
813
Nd
Nd
Nd
Nd
Mountains
Red River Delta
6.81
6,354
Nd
Nd
Nd
Nd
and Midlands
Central Coastal
51.22
8,500
Nd
Nd
Nd
Nd
Eastern
49.82
11,314
Nd
Nd
Nd
Nd
Southern
24.16
6,076
Nd
Nd
Nd
Nd
Subtotal
137.95
32,558
1.6
97,000
Nd
Nd
(national)
(national)
A total of 270,000,000 people live in the coastal sub-regions of seven countries
involved in the TDA process, and are concentrated in 93 cities, each with over 100,000
inhabitants (Tables 2.3 and 2.4). The weighted mean growth rate in the coastal South China
Sea is 2.17%, which would double the population in 32 years. In Cambodia, Indonesia and
Malaysia, growth rates in the South China Sea subregions are 1.5 to 2.0 times the national
growth rates.
The population distribution largely determines the delivery of basic services and the
quality of access to these. Population densities are highest for the coastal subregions of
China and the Philippines at 471 and 472 pers km-2, resp. Malaysia and Cambodia are least
dense at 31 and 49 pers km-2. Hinrichsen (1998) notes that in Viet Nam, people live at even
higher densities of 500-1,000 pers km-2 along the northern part of the Gulf of Tonkin. In
some parts of Hanoi, densities can reach 35,000 pers km-2. He cites tourism, increasing
fisheries efforts and oil exploitation as among the major economic driving forces behind this
dramatic increase in coastal populations.
2.3.2 Regional economic characteristics
Table 2.4 Summary of demographic and economic parameters
(All data are for South China Sea related subregions)

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Country/
Area
Population South China
Total GDP
%GDP-
%GDP-
Sub-region
( 103 km2)
(103)
Sea Annual
(growth
Agricultur
Industry
population
rate/y)
e
(growth
growth rate
(106 USD)
(growth
rate/y
(%) (national
rate/y)
(106 USD)
rate)
(106 USD)
Cambodia
17.24
840
5.58 (2.7)
0.12 (7%)
45 (1.5)
20 (14.1)
(1996-1997)
(national)
China (1996)
137.61
59,694
1.60 (1.6)
77,515
16
41
Indonesia
477.48
99,370
2.90 (1.5)
78,930
13 (nd)
38 (nd)
(1995-1996)
(national)
(national)
Malaysia (1996)
280.47
8,787
3.29 (2.0)
86,420
Nd
Nd
(national)
Philippines
50.05
23,633
2.13 (2.2)
87,864
21 (nd)
32 (nd)
(1996)
(national)
(national)
(national)
Thailand (1997)
321.93
37,142
1.35 (1.0)
83,844
10 (nd)
35 (nd)
Viet Nam (1996)
137.95
32,558
1.60
97,000
Nd
Nd
(national)
(national)
South China
1,422.73
262,024
2.17
Sea Total
TDA participating countries are at various stages of industrialization (Table 2.4).
Cambodia, with a national GDP of USD 0.12 million earns 45% of this from agriculture, and
20% from industry. In contrast, Indonesia relies on the industry sector for 57% of its GDP. In
terms of increasing reliance on industry for the generation of GDP, the countries may be
ranked as follows: Indonesia > China >Thailand > Philippines > Cambodia.
Table 2.5 Current and projected fish consumption
(national data cited by Silvestre and Pauly, 1997; 1998 World Almanac)
Country
Population
Per capita
Finite
Population
Current
Total fish
Total fish
1996 (106)
GNP
growth
2005
Fish
produced,
required for
(USD, 1995)
Rate
(106)
consum
1994
food in 2005
(%)
ption
(103 t/y)
at current per
(kg/p/y)
capita
consumption
(103 t/y)
Cambodia
10.2
215
2.7
13.0
12.0
103
156
Indonesia
197.6
940
1.5
225.9
15.5
4,060
3,502
Malaysia
20.6
3,930
2.0
24.6
29.5
1,173
726
Philippines
69.3
1,130
2.2
84.3
36.1
2,657
3,043
Thailand
61.4
2,680
1.0
67.2
25.3
3,432
1,699
Viet Nam
76.3
250
1.6
88.0
13.4
1,155
1,179

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Using national data from 1995, the countries can be ranked based on per capita GNP
as follows: Malaysia > Thailand > Philippines > Indonesia > Viet Nam > Cambodia (Table
2.5). For China, per capita GDP in 1994 was USD 2,500, which puts it between Thailand
and the Philippines. Fish consumption is highest in the Philippines, and least in Cambodia. If
one considers a minimum nutritional requirement of 21.5 kg/person/year, i.e. 50% of animal
protein to be supplied by fish, Cambodia, Viet Nam, and Indonesia will need to increase per
capita access to fish supply. To maintain the current pattern of consumption, total fish
requirements in 2005 are shown in the last column of Table 2.5. Cambodia, the Philippines
and Viet Nam will have to produce more fish just to meet domestic demands.
Table 2.6 Share of selected South China Sea countries in world exports of fishery products,
in USD 1,000 (Ferdouse, 1994)
Country
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
Indonesia
664,483
767,422
983,571
1,192,082
1,178,552
Malaysia
191,242
210,140
229,514
264,938
302,576
Philippines
407,504
409,879
395,960
467,729
393,997
Thailand
1,630,891
1,959,428
2,264,937
2,901,366
3,071,780
Brunei
300
350
380
440
400
Singapore
356,193
359,071
414,810
499,950
494,128
Total for 6 South
3,250,613
3,706,290
4,289,172
5,326,505
5,441,433
China Sea
countries
Global total
31,804,116
35,886,233
39,539,969
43,546,408
45,451,914
% of Global total
10
10
11
12
12
Table 2.7 Share of selected South China Sea countries in world imports of fishery products,
in USD 1,000 (data from Ferdouse, 1994)
Country
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
Indonesia
19,376
30,850
42,777
47,395
56,145
Malaysia
143,508
164,552
145,831
170,478
244,789
Philippines
63,063
65,730
84,809
96,109
111,000
Thailand
537,918
726,846
794,423
1,049,962
942,092
Brunei
7,404
7,180
7,160
6,780
7,000
Singapore
370,311
366,126
361,582
460,545
543,769
Total for 6
1,141,580
1,361,284
1,436,582
1,831,269
1,904,795
South China
Sea countries
Global total
35,269,622
35,886,233
39,539,969
43,546,408
45,451,914
% of Global
3
4
4
4
4
total
Despite nutritional requirements and current population growth rates, South China
Sea countries in general are net exporters of fishery products. Because the need to generate
foreign exchange to buy other capital inputs for industrialization is a higher priority than food
security, this trade pattern will most likely continue, unless policy shifts occur to make food
security of utmost importance in the national agendas of participating countries.
3
STATE OF ENVIRONMENT

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3.1
Modification of habitats
3.1.1 Mangroves
Status and immediate causes of mangrove destruction. Mangroves in the seven
participating countries constitute 10% of the current global area of slightly over 18 million ha
(Fig. 2) (Table 3.1). The total area lost over different time spans (70 years for the
Philippines) is estimated to be 4.2 million ha or 23% of the current global mangrove area.
The causes of mangrove destruction include conversion to pond culture, tree felling for
woodchip and pulp production, urban development and human settlements, and harvest of
products for domestic use. The national impact of each economic activity is difficult to
quantify for each country. Nonetheless, shrimp culture would seem to be the most pervasive
economic imperative for mangrove conversion. A more thorough analysis must take into
account the rate of loss brought about by each cause.
In a recent centre-page spread in the Jakarta Post the world's largest shrimp farm of
80,000 ha was described. It was claimed from mangrove at Bumi Dipasena. Integrated into
the farm was a shrimp feed will producing 220 tonnes/year a hatchery producing 8 billion
fry/year on a 220 ha site. Production of shrimp was estimated at 50,000 tonnes/year and
200 tonnes/day could be stored in a cold storage facility. There was a 160 megawatt power
plant, waste water treatment plant, a port and housing estate for 110,000 people. The
canals totalled 2,500 km.
Table 3.1 Loss and causes of mangrove destruction
Country
Original
Present
%
Causes of mangrove destruction
estimated
area
Area
cover
(x 1000 ha)
lost
Shrimp
Woodchip,
Urban
Domestic
(x 1000 ha)
culture
pulp,
development
use
charcoal
/ Human
settlements
Cambodia
170
85
50
ü
ü
China
42
15
65
ü
ü
Indonesia
N/A
936
N/A
ü
ü
ü
Malaysia
505
446
12
ü
ü
ü
Philippines
400
160
60
ü
ü
ü
Thailand1
280
160
57
ü
Viet Nam
400
253
37
ü
ü
TOTAL
1,852
GLOBAL
18,108
TOTAL
Sources: Spalding et al., 1997; ISME 1993; 1MOSTE & The World Bank, 1999.
It should be noted that estimates of both original and present mangrove area vary
greatly in the literature. Estimates used in this study are considered by the author to be the
most reliable.

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Transboundary issues. The major transboundary issues include losses in biodiversity and
fisheries productivity, and the trading of cultured shrimps as well as woodchips and pulp.
The quality of information to support the transboundary nature of these issues are assessed
in the light of data provided by the national reports of the seven participating countries, and
those accessed in the preparation of this analyses. The shrimp trade is well documented,
while the loss of fisheries productivity is a major research gap. Trade of mangrove charcoal
from Cambodia to Thailand is a major cause of mangrove loss in Cambodia (pers.comm.
Phoeun Phean, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Cambodia)
Table 3.2 Transboundary issues resulting from mangrove destruction
Transboundary Issues
Countries Involved
Quality of information:
G-good; F-fair; P-poor
Loss of biodiversity
All seven participating
F
countries
Loss of fisheries productivity
"
P
Shrimp trade
All seven except Cambodia
G
Woodchip and charcoal
Indonesia, Malaysia,
F
Cambodia
Loss of biodiversity. The incomplete inventory of flora and fauna associated with
mangrove areas in the South China Sea region in the seven participating countries indicates
the high biodiversity (Table 3.3). The rich species diversity is reflected in the high number of
mangrove trees, finfish and penaeid shrimps, among others, that are associated with
mangrove swamps. Because of the severe pressure exerted on mangroves, a number of
associated species are among those classified as endangered (Table 3.4). These include
the proboscis monkey, Nasalia larvatus, which eat young shoots and growing tips of
Sonneratia and Avicennia trees, the crocodile Crocodilus porosus and swamp birds like
Ardea and Egretta (Low et al., 1994).
Table 3.3 Biodiversity associated with mangroves
Country
Number of
Number
Number of
Number
Number
Number of
mangrove
of fish
commercially
of reptile
of bird
mammal
tree
species2
exploited
species4
species4
species4
species1
penaeid
species3
Cambodia
425
1746
China
23
Indonesia
45
138
42
7
43
Malaysia
36
99
28
7
60
19
Philippines
30
81
11
9
70
4
Thailand
35
67
20
Viet Nam
28
Sources: 1. Spalding et al., 1993; 2. Singh et al., 1994; 3. Chong et al., 1994; 4. Low et al., 1994; 5. Pers. Comm. Kim Nong,
IDRC, Cambodia; 6. Preah Sihanouk National Park Bird List.

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Table 3.4 Endangered species occurring in mangroves in Southeast Asia
(Low et al., 1994)
Species
Threat
Birds:
For all species:
Ø Purple heron Ardea purpurea
Ø Dusky-grey heron Ardea sumatrana
Loss of habitat, hunting for feathers, reduction
Ø Black-crown night heron Nycticotrax
of food supply due to overharvesting of bird
nycticorax
food sources by man
Ø Black bittern Dupetor flavicollis
Ø Great egret Egretta alba
Ø Common bittern Ixobrychus involucris
Ø Lesser adjutant stork Leptoptilus
javanicus
Ø Milky stork Mycteria cinerea
Ø Common cormorant Phalacrocorax
carbo
Amphibians:
Crab-eating frog Rana cancrivora
Loss of habitat
Reptiles:
Saltwater crocodile Crocodylus porosus
Loss of habitat, hunting for skins
Mammals:
Ø Long-tailed macaque Macaca
Ø Hunting
fascicularis
Ø Malaysian flying fox Pteropus
Ø Hunting
vampyrus
Ø Proboscis monkey Nasalis larvatus
Ø Loss of habitat
Ø Sumatran tiger Panthera tigris
Ø Killed for skin and bones
sumatrae
Ø Leaf monkey Presbytis cristata
Ø Loss of habitat
Ø Javan rhinoceros Rhinoceros
Ø Loss of habitat, hunting
sondaicus
Loss of fisheries productivity . Mangroves act as nursery and feeding grounds for
finfish and shellfish at some stage or throughout their life cycles. Singh et al., (1994)
obtained studies that show high correlation between catch in coastal fisheries and the area
of adjacent mangroves in study sites such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Australia and
the US. Although correlation does not imply causation, ecological studies have established
the connections between mangroves, coral reefs and seagrass as far as supporting the life
cycles of coastal organisms (Robertson and Duke, 1987; Twilley, 1989). Based on the
precautionary principle, it is not necessary to unequivocally prove that mangrove destruction
will cause a decline in the productivity of dependent biota, and consequently a decrease in
their yields. Until proven otherwise, then, mangroves must be conserved if only for their
probable positive relation to coastal fisheries.
The loss of renewable living resources resource is difficult to evaluate and value. For
the Philippines, the loss of mangroves and the consequent losses of their functions in
fisheries and other ecological services have been estimated to be US$242 Myr-1.
Shrimp trade. Six of the seven participating countries accounted for 61% of shrimp
exports to Japan in 1994, 74% of those entering Hong Kong, and 42% of those imported by
Taiwan of China (Ferdouse, 1996) (Table 3.6). Other markets for shrimps include the USA
and EU, and the emerging markets in Asia like Singapore and South Korea.

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The dominance of South China Sea countries in global shrimp production and trade,
underscores the richness of their resource base in supporting a highly valued fishery product
(Table 3.5). It also highlights the economic imperative behind the desire of producing
countries to keep the supply flowing, often without regard for the environmental impacts
increased production would bring. International financing institutions like the Asian
Development Bank have provided credit assistance to ASEAN countries in their bid to meet
the high and lucrative demand for shrimps (Primavera, 1994; Menasveta, 1997). At the
consumers' end, the desire for more prawns should not be regarded as a mere function of
their high disposable incomes, but also and more critically, of the environmental
sustainability of producing the fishery product they demand.
The increase in shrimp production, with the exception of the Philippines, in the last
ten years can be seen in Table 3.5. However over the last four years the largest producer,
Thailand, has reduced its production of shrimp and this trend may be continuing.
Table 3.5 Production of cultured shrimp (Penaeus monodon, Giant tiger prawn)
Country
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
mt
mt
mt
mt
mt
mt
mt
mt
mt
mt
Indonesia
44,450
63,676
67,355
96,811
98,358
87,285
83,193
89,344
96,237
99,680
Malaysia
1,105
1,965
2,184
2,895
2,821
3,937
5,789
6,713
7,412
9,380
Philippines
41,458
43,539
47,591
45,740
75,996
86,096
90,426
88,850
76,220
40,102
Thailand
40,774
81,492
107,970
155,069
179,358
219,900
259,724
257,062
220,372
211,100
Viet Nam
20,590F*
21,020F*
23,250F*
26,700F*
28,350F*
31,500F*
33,750F*
39,000F*
48,750F*
60,000F*
Total
148,377
211,692
248,350
327,215
384,883
428,718
472,882
480,969
448,991
420,262
Source: FOA Report on Fisheries Statistics P74 B-45
*. Estimates of FAO
Table 3.6 Importation by major Asian markets of shrimp from participating countries, 1994
(data from Ferdouse, 1996)
Country
Import of shrimp by major Asian Markets (mt), 1994
Japan
Hong Kong
Taiwan of China
Indonesia
63,666
4,202
21
Thailand
49,345
6,470
10,574
Viet Nam
32,979
6,715
China
20,417
6,531
Philippines
16,916
37
Malaysia
2,279
690
Subtotal for 6 counties (%
185,602
24,645
10,595
Overall Shrimp Import by
(61%)
(74%)
(42%)
Recipient Country)
Overall shrimp import
302,975
33,191
25,104

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Shrimp culture systems. Of the three culture systems used in shrimp production,
extensive culture requires the largest space, is the major culprit in mangrove conversion,
and is the least productive (Menasveta and Fast, 1998). However, the extent of
environmental impacts by each culture system should be assessed in terms of clearance
rates, area requirements, and in terms of adverse consequences such as the extent of water
quality degradation, and pressure on water resources, among others.
Extensive farming dominates and is practiced in close to 70% of global pond area. Its
low capital requirements and high dependence on tidal regimes for water and natural food
inputs, requires extensive mangrove areas. To increase per unit area production, the semi-
intensive technique was developed, basically augmenting natural food with supplementary
feeds, and the tidal flushing with a pumping system (Primavera, 1993). The intensive culture
system relies heavily on artificial feeds, pumps and aerators, and may not necessarily be
sited in mangroves (Menasveta, 1997).
Using productivity and environmental impacts as criteria, Primavera, (1994) states
that the sustainability of successful shrimp aquaculture will require the use of semi-intensive
culture systems refined by environmentally sound practices, including the appropriate
management of feeds and wastewater.
Table 3.7 World shrimp culture areas and annual production by culture system,
1992-1993 (Menasveta and Fast, 1998)
Culture
Pond Areas
Annual Shrimp Production
System
Area (ha)
% of Total
Production
% of Total
(mt)
Extensive
726,900
67
159,900
22
Semi-intensive
304,000
28
304,000
42
Intensive
52,000
5
258,800
36
Shrimp culture and the introduction of exotic species. Another transboundary issue is
the introduction of pathogens with the trade of brood stocks and larvae for shrimp hatcheries
and grow-out ponds worldwide (Primavera, 1993). Furthermore, introduction of exotic
penaeid species which promise higher growth rates and thus, higher economic returns has
also occurred. In the Philippines, Penaeus vannamei and P. stylirostris from Panama were
introduced to ponds in the central islands in the 1970s. P. chinensis from China and a stock
of P. vannamei from Hawaii were brought in in the `80s and `90s, respectively. (Primavera,
1993). While the environmental impacts of such introduction have yet to be documented, the
spread of disease and parasitic infestation that is exacerbated by poor pond management,
may be symptomatic of the effect of importing foreign stocks.
Shrimp culture and trade of chemically contaminated products. The wide use of
chemical products in shrimp culture, and residuals that have chemical lives long enough to
threaten public health, is another associated transboundary issue. Srisomboon and
Poomchatra, (1995) warn of the contamination of traded shrimp products with antibiotics and
their transboundary transport. The tetracycline group of antibiotics, for example, can inhibit
protein synthesis in mammalian cells, and can cause acquired resistance to a broad
spectrum of microorganisms. The presence of antibiotic residues has occasionally led to the
rejection of shipments from South China Sea countries, causing economic losses for
exporters. It also is indicative of how far removed the production systems are from natural
systems which allow organisms growing in the wild to cope with naturally occurring
pathogens.
Export of wood products (logs, chips and charcoal). Unlike shrimps which are
produced mainly for export, wood products derived from mangroves are consumed both by
domestic and foreign markets. Because of the high revenues derived from export, it is

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economically more gainful and often, more environmentally threatening, when foreign
demands become a market priority. Table 3.8 shows the exported wood products by three
participating countries (Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand) with data obtained from ISME,
(1993). Among the wood-based activities, woodchips for use in the Japanese rayon
production, seems to be the most destructive and least sustainable. Closure of operations of
chip plants at levels below optimum because of extremely rapid consumption of mangrove
trees has occurred. The non-banning of the woodchip industry and reliance on shortage of
raw materials for their short-term but devastating operation, underscores the heavy weight of
profit over environmental non-sustainability in defining harvest policies for mangroves.
Table 3.8 Export of mangrove derived wood products (data from ISME, 1993)
Exporting
Wood Product
Recipient
Details
Country
countries
Indonesia
Logs from Sumatra,
Taiwan of
1989: 34,404 m3 out of
Kalimantan and Irian
China, Japan
45,805 m3 produced in
Jaya
West Kalimantan exported
Charcoal from Riau
Singapore,
1983: 1983 production
Province in Sumatra with Hong Kong
reached 22,207 t, valued at
836 kilns in 1984
USD 1 M.
Woodchips and pulp
Japan
1990: 247,497 m3 exported
from W. and E.
Kalimantan, N. Sumatra
Malaysia
Woodchips from
Japan
Lifespan of woodchip mills
Sarawak and Sabah
ranged from 15 to 25 years
because of rapid
consumption of mangrove
stands (e.g. 70,000 ha in 15
yrs.) with USD 3-5 M
annual revenue
Thailand
90% of harvest used for
Penang,
Average harvest of wood is
charcoal; 60% of
Malaysia;
783,780 m3/yr to produce
charcoal production for
Singapore and
387,800 m3 of charcoal
domestic consumption;
Hong Kong
40% for export
3.1.2 Coral reefs
Status of coral reefs and immediate causes of degradation. Coral reefs in the seven
participating countries are at various levels of degradation (Table 3.9). In sub-regions
interacting with the South China Sea, reefs in Malaysia and northwest Philippines show 10 to
30 % degradation. In Thailand and Indonesia, 40 to 60% of reefs are degraded. Ninety five
percent of coastal areas of Hainan are severely degraded.
Table 3.9 Extent of coral reef degradation in participating countries
Country/
%
No. of
Extent of Live coral cover
Subregion of
Degraded
transects2
(national scale and includes non-South China Sea
South China
Reefs1
subregions)
Sea

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%
%
%
%
Transects
Transects
Transects
Transects
with >75%
with 50-
with 25-
with <25%
live cover
75% live
50% live
live cover
cover
cover
Cambodia
No data
36
China
95
(Hainan coast)
Indonesia
190
2.6
24.2
31.6
41.6
· Western
· 60
· Central
· 40
Malaysia
193
11.4
52.8
27.5
8.3
· Peninsular
· 10
· Eastern
· 30
Philippines
238
1.3
7.5
49.2
42.0
· Luzon
· 30
· Palawan
· 10
· Rest
· 20
Thailand
178
16.9
42.1
34.8
6.2
· North Gulf
· 60
· South Gulf
· 50
Viet Nam
No data
ASEAN
82
1,2Chou et al., 1994b.
Using published information from the ASEAN-AUSTRALIA Living Coastal Resource
Resources (LCR) Project, and with sites that include areas not interacting with the South
China Sea, the Philippines and Indonesia have 91 and 72% of the transects studied with
less than 50% live cover (Chou et al., (a), 1994: Chou et al., (b), 1994b). Using a
regionalized assessment, Bryant et al., (1998), show that Southeast Asia harbors 27% of the
world's mapped reefs, and that the reefs fringing the archipelagic nations of Indonesia and
the Philippines, account for 84% of these (or 22% of the global total). Their evaluation
indicates that 50% of Indonesian reefs and 85% of those in the Philippines are at high risk
(Table 3.10).
The immediate causes of reef degradation in the participating countries and in
Southeast Asia in general are varied, but the major ones are commonly identified in the
national reports (Table 3.11). Regional assessments like those of Wilkinson et al., (1994)
state that pollution and sediments are major causes in countries of the Sunda shelf, and in
the shallow areas of the Philippines and Indonesia. However, overfishing causes greatest
degradation in the deeper areas of the archipelagoes including those in the oceanic shoals.
Bryant et al., (1998) enumerate overfishing, destructive fishing practices, sedimentation and
pollution associated with coastal development as the major culprits. These causes were
weighted in determining the three risk levels used in their evaluation. They further note that,
because reefs are most extensive and most threatened in Indonesia and the Philippines, the
management steps taken by them will have a major impact on "...the global heritage of reef
biodiversity".

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Figure 3.
Known distribution of coral reefs in the South China Sea categorized
by the degree of human threats.

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Table 3.10 Estimates of reef area and level of vulnerability to three risk levels
(after Bryant et al., 1998)
Region
Coastal
Total
Level of Risk
Population
estimated
Low
Medium
High
Density within
reef area
60 km from
(km2)
coast/km2
Southeast
128
68,100 12,300 (18%) 18,000 (26%) 37,800 (56%)
Asia
Indian Ocean
135
36,100 16,600 (46%) 10,500 (29%)
9,000 (25%)
Pacific
98
108,000 63,500 (59%) 33,900 (31%) 10,600 (10%)
Global Total
255,300
Philippines
174
13,000
50
1,900 (15%) 11,050 (85%)
(0%)
Indonesia
93
42,000
7,000 (17%) 14,000 (33%) 21,000 (50%)
Table 3.11 Immediate causes of coral reef degradation (obtained from national reports).
Country
Immediate Causes
Over-
Destructive
Sedimentatio
Pollution
exploitation
fishing
n
associated
practices
with coastal
development
Cambodia
ü
ü
China
ü
Malaysia
ü
ü
ü
ü
Indonesia
ü
ü
ü
Philippines
ü
ü
ü
ü
Thailand
ü
ü
ü
Viet Nam
ü
ü
ü
ü
Transboundary issues. The transboundary issues associated with reef degradation
include loss of biodiversity, reduction in reef fisheries, coastal tourism, threatened or
endangered migratory species like marine turtles, the coral trade, and the trade of
associated biota (Table 3.12). The quality of information to document or support the
transboundary nature of these issues is generally fair.
Loss of biodiversity. Coral reefs are the most diverse of marine ecosystems. Table
C5 summarizes salient taxonomic data for the region. Data is most dense in countries that
were involved in the ASEAN-Australia LCR Project (Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand,
Malaysia, and Singapore), and comparative data using similar methods for Viet Nam and
Cambodia are needed. However, there is sufficient information to suggest that degraded
reefs in studied areas have incurred reductions in biodiversity, and at worse, species
extinctions. In Bolinao, northern Philippines, McManus et al., (1992), have shown the
reduction in species diversity of reef fishes together with a decline in fish abundance as a
consequence of overexploitation. In the same reefs, the sea urchin Tripneustes gratilla
decreased dramatically in abundance from 210 per 100 m2 in December 1987 to less than 1
per 100 m2 March 1993. Consequently, there was a failure in recruitment, triggering the
collapse of the sea urchin industry in 1992 (Talaue-McManus and Kesner 1995). It remains
to be assessed how extinctions which are evident at local levels can impact biodiversity at
larger scales.

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The threats to fringing reefs of Southeast Asia are transboundary because of the high
biodiversity they support. The reversing monsoonal pattern of wind and surface circulation
provide for connections between oceanic shoal reefs and those which fringe the coastal
states. McManus, (1994) hypothesizes that planktonic larvae of many coral reef biota from
the oceanic shoals of the South China Sea can recruit in the fringing reefs of Sabah, the
Philippines, Taiwan of China, coastal China, the Paracell Islands, Viet Nam or in the Natuna
Islands (Indonesia), depending on the direction of water circulation. In protecting the regional
biodiversity, it is imperative to take into account such connections. For example, the
establishment of marine protected areas may be made more strategic within the context of
interconnected reef systems and not as isolated non-interacting and self-contained units.
One way to validate exchange of species and genetic biodiversity is through the examination
of genetic affinities among conspecifics in various locations in the South China, with varying
extent of larval dispersal. Those with short-lived larvae and therefore limited dispersal should
have lower affinities, and those with long-lived pelagic larvae should have the closest genetic
similarities. Ongoing studies in the region such as those being coordinated by ICLARM along
with its collaborators in the region, and those conducted by the University of the Philippines
Marine Science Institute South China Sea Program, can validate the reef connectivity
hypothesis.
Table 3.12 Transboundary issues associated with degradation of coral reef
Transboundary Issues
Countried Involved
Quality of Information
Loss of biodiversity
All countries except Cambodia
Poor to Fair
Endangered or threatened
Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia
Poor to Fair
migratory species ­ marine turtles
Reduction in reef fisheries
Oceanic shoal reefs and
Poor to Fair
associated coastal reefs (e.g. Viet
Nam, China, Indonesia, Malaysia,
Philippines)
Coastal tourism
All countries
Fair
Coral trade
Indonesia, Philippines as exporters Fair
Trade of associated biota like
Indonesia, Philippines as
Fair
aquarium fish
exporters

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Table 3.13 Biodiversity associated with coral reefs
Country
No. of
No. of fish
No. of
No. of turtle
scleractinian
species unique
chaetodontid
species ( all
species
to country
fish species in
South China Sea
LCR study sites
species are
endangered and
migratory)
Cambodia
No data
No data
No data
4 sp
China
No data
2 sp
· Hainan
· 110 sp
· Taiwan of China · 230 sp
Indonesia
350 sp, 76
42 sp, 21 fam
33 sp
3 sp
genera
Malaysia
346 sp
0 sp
21 sp
4 sp
Philippines
421 sp
294 sp, 42 fam
35 sp
4 sp
Thailand
50 sp, 24 fam
17 sp
2 sp
Viet Nam
350 sp, 79
No data
No data
No data
genera
ASEAN Region ­
787 sp, 64 fam;
41 sp
Worldwide total:
LCR
34 sp in 12
7 sp.
Study Sites
families
common
Sources: Alino, 1994, Chantrapornsyl, 1994, Chou et al., 1994 (a), Chou et al ., 1994 (b), Ibrahim, 1994, Leh, 1994, Marquez,
1990, Palma, 1994, Soekarno, 1994, Soehartono, 1994, Ridzwan, 1994, IUCN, 1995.
Endangered and threatened migratory species. Four species of marine turtles nest in
a number of localities around the South China Sea. Through tagging recoveries, migration
patterns for a number of them are emerging. Limpus, (1994) states that marine turtles are
likely to navigate across 2500 km relative to their nesting areas. Turtles from Sabah are
recovered or captured in Eastern Indonesia or in the Philippines. Ibrahim, (1994) reports that
tags from tagged leatherback turtles from Peninsular Malaysia have been received from
Hawaii, Taiwan of China, Japan and Indonesia, but mostly from the Philippines. The reason
for the high frequency of recovery in the Philippines is that leatherbacks may be following a
north-bound current for their post-breeding migration.
Four marine turtle species (see Table 3.14) are exploited for their meat, eggs and
shell. With their long life cycle, the long interval between egg-laying, their vulnerable nesting
grounds, and the high natural mortality incurred at early stages, they are unable to cope with
high exploitation rates. Table 3.14 shows annual populations of marine turtles in protected
nesting sites in Terengganu, along the eastern coast of Peninsular Malaysia during the
period 1984-1993 (Ibrahim, 1994). Hawksbills averaged 41 per year, leatherbacks and olive
ridleys at 374 and 269 per year, resp. Green turtles were most numerous at 2,902 per year.
Despite the differences in numbers, egg production across species did not vary much, from
83 eggs/female/year for leatherbacks to 112 eggs/female/year for hawksbills. Comparing the
annual mean egg production with the annual mean number of nesting adults, adults
represent 0.9% to 1.2% of the annual egg production of a nesting population. One may use
this as a proxy to infer mortality rates. Thus, all four species incur mortality rates of 99% from
egg to nesting adult, with little variation.
Table 3.14 Annual nesting of marine turtles in Terengganu (data from Ibrahim, 1994)
Year
Leatherback
Green
Hawksbill
Olive Ridley
1984
788
4,292
9
293

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1985
418
1,169
20
380
1986
596
4,492
123
454
1987
502
1,459
23
493
1988
367
3,542
56
308
1989
286
2,213
20
280
1990
280
1,561
72
187
1991
207
5,311
25
121
1992
231
1,688
28
78
1993
63
3,296
38
98
Annual average nesting
374
2,902
41
269
population /year
Annual average egg
31,164
269,116
4,591
25,903
production, 1983-1993;
eggs/yr
Average
83
93
112
96
eggs/female /year
Annual adult numbers/
1.2%
1.1%
0.9%
1.0%
Annual egg production
Duc and Broad (1993) estimated that about 300 to 2000 hawksbill turtles were traded
in various forms in three sites in southern Vietnam (Table 3.15). The upper limit of the
estimate was consistent with that indicated by Mack et al. for the year 1977 (Table 3.16).
Given the small nesting population of hawksbills and their low rate of egg production, it is
likely that this level of exploitation is not sustainable.
Table 3.15 Exploitation of hawksbill turtles in Viet Nam, 1993
(data from Duc and Broad, 1993)
Study Site
Captive-
Capture of adults
Traded shell (kg;
Traded stuffed
rearing for
For meat and
1kg can be
turtle
meat and shell
shell
obtained from
1 adult)
Kien Giang
173
56
20
59
Province: Total for
1993 was 308
Con Dao
50-100
Archipelago,
killed/year
1970s to 1985
Nha Trang : 2,000
150-200/ year
200-300/year
pieces traded
annually
Turtle trade. Although the data in Tables 3.16 and 3.17 are twenty years old, these
represent the level of exploitation incurred by the hawksbill turtle during the early years of
the CITES Convention. Exports of raw tortoise shell from Southeast Asia accounted for
almost 50% of the global annual trade in 1976 and 1977. In 1978, its share increased to 82%
because of the 250% increase in Indonesian exports.
Imports of raw shells were also dominated by Asia, with Taiwan of China and Japan
posting the highest from 1976 to 1978. It would be interesting to see the growth or demise of
the trade considering the currently endangered status of marine turtles. The figures in trade
in turtles need to be updated to determine changes in patterns of export and import, and to
asses the level of commitment among parties to the CITES Convention to minimize the trade
of endangered turtle species.

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Table 3.16 Worldwide export of raw tortoise shell (kg) from Eretmochelys imbricata
(Hawksbill turtle) (Mack et al., 1979)
Country
1976
1977
1978
Indonesia
71,373
85,577
219,585
Thailand
23,859
37,941
56,928
Philippines
15,607
27,905
38,145
Malaysia
7,253
8,879
9,311
Viet Nam
-
1,854
-
· Total for SE Asia
· 118,092
· 162,156
· 323,969
· % of World Total
· 47%
· 49%
· 82%
Total for Asia
141,294
265,875
329,984
Total for Oceania/Pacific
55,547
1,310
36,871
Islands
Total for Central and
28,390
44,817
7,575
South America
Total for Africa
9,801
3,811
3,660
Total for Caribbean
14,140
13,875
17,129
World Total
249,172
329,688
395,219
Table 3.17 Worldwide imports of raw tortoise shell (kg),1976-1978 (Mack et al.,1979)
Country
1976
1977
1978
Taiwan of China
46,652
37,704
128,846
Japan
46,060
45,818
44,039
Hong Kong
26,620
42,788
102,275
Malaysia
9,133
30,060
-
Singapore
4,140
21,002
18,469
China
3,911
3,381
3,827
Viet Nam
2,700
647
-
Thailand
1,238
2,231
-
· Total for Asia
· 140,454
· 183,631
· 297,456
· % of World Total
· 75%
· 71%
· 96%
Total for Europe
12,814
16,270
11,413
Total for Americas and
23,181
11,875
194
Caribbean
Total for Pacific
14,000
50,714
252
World Total
190,449
262,490
309,315

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Reduction in fisheries productivity. The transboundary nature of decreasing fisheries
productivity in coral reefs can be viewed two ways. One way is to show transboundary
impacts of declining fisheries in one country on another. The other way is to invoke that
transboundary trade is an economic root cause of the reduction in reef fisheries productivity.
Because there are very few studies addressing reef connectivities to date, it is difficult to
prove the impacts of declining fisheries in terms of decreases in recruitment, growth and
yield across national boundaries. The transboundary economic pressures bearing on the
extraction of reef-based fishery products like corals, aquarium fish, and the exploitation of
reefs for their aesthetic values by coastal tourism, are better documented as below.
It is important to show in this section that reef degradation does lead to significant
losses in fisheries, whether or not such losses or the factors causing them are
transboundary. Reef­based fisheries account for about 20-25% of the marine fish catch in
developing countries like the Philippines and Indonesia (McManus, 1988). Because of their
proximity to shore, fringing reefs are heavily exploited by subsistence fishers including
gleaners, whose catch do not make it to fisheries logs. As such, the estimation of reef-based
fisheries is at best rough and an undervaluation of real catches. In a Philippine marine
protected reef, Russ, (1991) estimated fish yield to be in the order of 30 mt/km2/yr. In a
heavily exploited Philippine reef, McManus et al., (1992) found production values of 2.7
mt/km2/yr and 12.0 mt/km2/yr for the reef slope and reef flat of Bolinao, resp. Thus,
overexploitation leads not only to degraded reefs with lower biodiversity, but also to habitats
with lower capacities to support fish.
The losses, both in biodiversity and in fisheries yield, are transboundary if reef
interdependence between oceanic shoals and highly exploited fringing reefs of the South
China Sea is considered. The precautionary principle should be used to promote taking
collaborative management steps despite the absence of unequivocal empirical data, which
often comes too late for effective mitigation.
Coastal tourism. Tables 3.18 and 3.19 provide indications of the significance of
tourism in generating foreign revenues. At the same time, the industry requires
infrastructure, usually situated on the coast to maximize returns from the enjoyment of white
sand beaches, and coral reefs. Tourism, including resort building and pollution caused by
tourist activities, according to Wilkinson and Ridzwan, (1994), is ranked as a moderate threat
to coral reefs in the ASEAN context. Sudara et al. (1994), underscore the fact that tourism is
the major reef-dependent activity that is increasing throughout the ASEAN countries. They
note further that coastal tourist facilities in Pattaya Bay (Thailand), Pulau Seribu (Indonesia),
and others in Malaysia and the Philippines, have wrought damage on coral reefs.
Damage begins with the construction of resort facilities, exacerbating the flow of
erosional materials (Sudara et al., 1994). Beaches are fortified with sand mined from
adjacent reefs, some of which needs to be dredged to create sandy bottoms and navigation
channels for boats. In certain cases, artificial beaches are made through reclamation. In all
cases, sediments flow unabated to the fringing reefs causing smothering.
More negative impacts ensue when the facilities begin operations. Untreated sewage
flows directly from discharge pipes to the reef flats and solid wastes begin to accumulate.
For China-South China Sea, foreign tourists in 1996 were 9.0% of the resident population;
7.2% in Malaysia-South China Sea (1993); 6.7% in the Philippines-South China Sea (1993);
and 32.6% in Thailand (1997).
Hawkins, (1998) provides a mechanism for linking tourism-generated income and
coral reef conservation, a way of internalizing environmental cost into the industry through
user fees, concession fees and other forms of service-money exchanges. Where
subsistence people use the coastal land and waters for food and livelihood, the promotion of
ecologically friendly tourism must not lead to their economic and social dislocation. Direct

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users have been integrated into conventional tourism as service providers, to supplement or
broaden their income base, while the industry erodes the living resource and culture base.
Innovative and integrated coastal management mechanisms may provide more appropriate
linkages between stakeholders and the industry.
Table 3.18 Tourist visits in South China Sea-regions of the participating countries. National
data was used for Cambodia, Indonesia and Viet Nam (World Tourism Organization, 1999).
(1provided by national reports.)
Country
From same
From South
From non-
Foreign
Total
country
China Sea
South China
tourists
number of
countries
Sea countries
tourists
(% of foreign
(% of foreign
tourists)
tourists)
Cambodia,
9,659
72,301
136,883
209,184
218,843
(National) 1998
(33%)
(65%)
China1 ­South
34,062,167
4,785,940
1,105,954
5,891,894
39,954,061
China Sea, 1996
(81%)
(19%)
Indonesia
604,821
2,124,179
2,307,271
4,431,450
5,036,271
(National), 1998
(48%)
(52%)
Malaysia1-South
1,193,837
636,846
China Sea, 1993
Philippines1-South
252,523
516,110
1,058,308
1,574,418
1,826,941
China Sea, 1993
(33%)
(67%)
Thailand1 ­South
70,096,104
4,741,290
7,387,241
12,128,531
82,224,635
China Sea, 1997
(39%)
(61%)
Viet Nam
540,971
437,217
541,940
979,157
1,520,128
(National) 1998
(45%)
(55%)
The large number of tourists visiting Thailand is a warning to the authorities that care
must be taken with the environment. As fledgling tourist industries begin in Thailand and
Cambodia the governments are in a good position to manage the tourists and the industry.
Note that most of the tourists visiting Cambodia are actually going to Tana Lot and not the
coast (Table 3.18). There was a decline in tourism in South China Sea countries (World
Tourism Organization, 1999) except for Thailand between 1997 and 1999, but the general
trend is shown in Table 3.19.
Table 3.19 Growth in tourism in ASEAN countries, 1985-1992 (Sudara et al., 1994)
Country
1985
1992
Annual Growth
Million USD
Million USD
%
Indonesia
548
2,723
56.7
Malaysia
622
1,595
22.3
Philippines
944
1,350
5.1
Singapore
1,600
5,782
35.5
Thailand
1,171
4,057
35.2
Coral trade. The export of corals from Southeast Asia, especially from Indonesia and
the Philippines is a fairly well documented industry despite its illegality. From 1986 to 1989,
export was not limited to these two countries, and included the significant contribution of
Malaysia and Taiwan of China in certain years (Table 3.20). The ecological impact of harvest
for the coral trade is localized damage (IUCN/UNEP, 1988). The transboundary aspect of
the coral trade lies in the need for foreign exchange by Southeast Asian nations, among
other tropical developing countries, and the need for exotic tropical ornaments by importing
countries, which are developed nations like Japan, the US and those in Europe. Though

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legal instruments such as the coral ban in the Philippines, and the Lacey Act in the US
should control illegal trade from the exporting country to the recipient country, these have not
effectively stopped the coral trade. Bentley (1998) however, notes that the increase in
exports by Indonesia could be explained in part by the void left by the Philippines as a result
of the Philippine coral ban. The total shipment, in 1992, from the Philippines, totalled a
million pieces (Table 3.21). The mean annual shipment leaving Indonesia during the period
1985-1995 reached 930,000 pieces. To date, the export of corals like coral mining for
construction and for lime production, have not been banned in Indonesia. Bentley, (1998)
underscores the fact that about 5,000 tons/year are harvested to meet the needs for local
construction and lime production while 3,000 tons/year are for export.
Table 3.20 Coral trade by exporting/reexporting countries, 1986-1989
(based on Mulliken and Nash, 1993)
Country
No. of pieces as reported by importing country
1986
1987
1988
1989
Indonesia
280, 195
185,651
467,057
75,894
Philippines
750, 541
1,172,692
561,583
71,665
Singapore
7,986
230
161
75
Taiwan of China
78,442
263,706
106,051
168,641
Thailand
-
79
275
13
Malaysia
133,602
20 kg
-
-
Sri Lanka
74
72
65
398
Table 3.21 Coral shipments from the Philippines in 1992
(Mulliken and Nash, 1993)
Importing country
No. of
Weight in
No. of pieces
Action of importing
shipment
tons
country
s
Belgium
3
29,554 Accepted
Italy
3
27,190 Refused
Japan
1.3
Accepted
Netherlands
3
37,665 Accepted
2
15.5
6886 Seized
UK
1
43,782 Refused
2
56.5
Refused
USA
354
Accepted
88
Abandoned
39
Seized
2
Returned
Total for USA
483
867,136
Total for all countries
497
>73.3
>1,000,000
Table 3.22 Average annual trade of Indonesian corals for the top 15 recipient countries,
1985-1995 (Bentley, 1998)
Importer
Pieces
Importer
Pieces
USA
676,531 Canada
5,730
Japan
114,219 Singapore
2,809
Germany (FR)
38,986 Austria
1,821
Spain
21,493 Hong Kong
1,671
Italy
20,540 Malaysia
1,258
France
17,275 New Zealand
1,051
Netherlands
11,030 Korea (Rep.)
978

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UK
10,253 Other countries
3,802
Trade of marine aquarium fish. The trade in marine aquarium fish caught on coral
reefs is unsustainable Cyanide and other harmful chemicals are used to make aquarium fish
more vulnerable to capture. These compounds, however, harm reefs, especially in the
Philippines and Indonesia where the trade provides lucrative but short-term gains. Although
the sale of marine aquarium fish constitutes only 10% of the ornamental fish trade (90%
freshwater), it is totally dependent on wild resources (Bassleer, 1994). Ninety-nine per cent
are bought by hobbyists, while the remainder goes to public aquaria and research institutes.
The Philippines and Indonesia appear to be the major exporters, with the US, the EEC
nations and Japan as major trading partners.
The trade of coral reef resources for ornamental purposes is degrading to reefs in the
South China Sea and other regions. Clearly, the driving forces are in the demand for these
resources. At the sale and collection ends, environmental concerns may be increased
through public education, regulations and more stringent management. Resor, (1998)
considers environmental certificates as a means to promote best handling practices among
collectors, who can then demand optimal prices for their catch. However, this assumes that
reefs can sustain further harvest for use other than food. In summary, the gains for foreign
exchange may be miniscule in comparison to rent that is dissipated with the loss of
ecological functions like the ability of reefs to support fish for food.
Table 3.23 Trade of marine aquarium fish from Indonesia and Philippines
(data from Bassleer, 1994)
Origin
US imports
EEC
Japan
Total
(106 USD)
Imports
imports
106 USD
(106 USD)
(106 USD)
Indonesia
9.1
2.1
4.85
16.05
Philippines
8.6
1.3
3.85
13.75
Totals
17.7
3.4
8.70
29.80

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Figure 4.
Known distribution of seagrass in the South China Sea.

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3.1.3 Seagrasses
Status of seagrass meadows and immediate causes of degradation. Among coastal
habitats, seagrass beds are the least studied compared to coral reefs and mangrove
systems (Fortes, 1994, 1995). An assessment of the extent of habitat modification in
Southeast Asia is at best rough, and based on a few studied areas in each country.
Anywhere from 20 to 50% of seagrass areas in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines and
Thailand are damaged based on studies conducted by the ASEAN-Australia Living Coastal
Resources Project and data provided by the TDA national reports (Table 3.24). Coastal
development, which releases sediments, destructive fishing methods and land-based
pollution, are among the major threats.
The lack of scientific information is alarming in the face of widespread modification of
seagrass areas throughout the region. Their location in reef flats and areas adjacent to
mangrove areas indicate their crucial function in trapping sediments which remain
suspended after they pass through mangrove areas. Thus, seagrass beds are depositional
areas themselves, and clean waters for corals. The shallow depths and proximity to shore
render them extremely vulnerable to all forms of destructive harvest methods, and activities
on land which exacerbate the release of sediments and effluents.
Table 3.24 Extent of damage and causes of degraded seagrass meadows
Country
Extent
Immediate causes of degradation
of damage
Cambodia
No data
Fishing by pushnets, trawling, transport and navigation
China
4,200 ha remaining
Land reclamation
in Guangxi region
Indonesia
30-40%
Sedimentation, heavy coral mining and collection from reef
flats
Malaysia
Unknown
Coastal reclamation, oil spills, land-based pollution Adverse
impacts of coastal reclamation in South China Sea regions
Philippines
30-50%
Industrial development, ports and recreation
Thailand
20-30%
Waste disposal from domestic use and aquaculture,
fisheries, collection for traditional medicine, land reclamation
and development
Viet Nam
Unknown
Fertilizer production, animal feed production, land
reclamation for agriculture and aquaculture, mats and
handicrafts
Sources: Fortes, 1994, TDA National reports
Transboundary issues. These include the loss of biodiversity, loss of fisheries
productivity, and the trade of seahorses and marine turtles. The poor quality of information is
a deterrent to a more quantified assessment of these issues, but their significance can be
roughly determined given the information that can be accessed (Table 3.25).

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Table 3.25 Transboundary issues resulting from degradation of seagrass habitats
Transboundary issues
Countries involved
Quality of information
Loss of biodiversity
All seven participating countries
Poor to Fair
Loss of fisheries productivity
Same
Poor
Seahorse trade
All except Cambodia
Poor
Marine turtle trade
All except Cambodia
Poor to fair
Loss of biodiversity. Like coral reefs and mangroves, seagrass beds are highly
diverse. In Southeast Asia, 20 species of seagrasses have been recorded out of about 50
species worldwide, making the region the second most seagrass species-rich area next to
Malesia, a region bounded by Indonesia, northern Australia and Papua New Guinea (Fortes,
1995). The number of adult and juvenile fish species which seagrass beds in the region
harbor is high (Table 3.26). A number of endangered species like sea cows and marine
turtles are known to feed in seagrass beds. (See discussion of marine turtles in section on
coral reefs.).
Seagrasses, coral reefs and mangroves adjacent to or some distance from each
other share similarities in biota because organisms spend various stages of their life cycles
among these three coastal habitats. Siganids, for example, settle in seagrass areas as post-
larvae to feed and grow. They move offshore to spawn, presumably in deep-water reefs.
Fortes, (1995) obtained similarity indices for a number of sites in the Philippines (Table
3.27). The percent similarities for fish were variable and dependent on peculiarities in coastal
geomorphology.
Table 3.26 Biodiversity associated with seagrass beds in the South China Sea
Country
Length of coastline (km)
No. of seagrass
No. of associated
Endangered species
(National/
species
fish species
South China Sea regions)
Cambodia
South China Sea: 435
61
No data
Dugong dugon;
Chelonia mydas
China
South China Sea: 6,888
4
8
Dugong dugon; 2 turtle
sp
Indonesia
NAT: 54,716
12
165
3 turtle sp
Malaysia
NAT: 4,675
10
15sp
Dugong dugon; 4 turtle
9 fam
sp
Philippines
NAT: 22,540
16
172 sp
Dugong dugon; 4 turtle
50 fam
sp
Thailand
South China Sea: 3,219
10
67 sp
Dugong dugon; turtle
37 fam
sp
Viet Nam
South China Sea: 3,260
14
No data
Dugong dugon; 1 turtle
sp; 2 fish sp
20
5 turtle sp
ASEAN LCR
318 sp, 51 fam
Study
WORLD
50
7 turtle sp
Sources: Fortes, 1995, Fortes, 1994, Sudara et al ., 1994, National TDA Reports, 1 Kirkman, EAS/RCU pers.comm.

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Table 3.27 Shared biodiversity among mangroves, seagrasses and coral reefs
(data from Fortes, 1995)
Location
Biota
Seagrass-
Seagrass-
Mangrove-
Mangrove
coral reef
coral reef
% similarity
% similarity
% similarity
Calancan Bay, Philippines
Fish
44.4%
13.3%
Calatagan, Philippines
Algal epiphytes
31.4%
56.2%
11.0%
All study areas in Philippines
fish
13.0%
46.3%
Loss of fisheries productivity. The transboundary nature of the decline in fisheries
productivity in seagrass areas lies in the possible connections between fringing and oceanic
reefs and among fringing reefs downstream of reversing monsoonal longshore currents. The
nursery and feeding roles of seagrass beds underscore their importance in maintaining the
high biodiversity and high fisheries production.
There is little quantitative data to support the level of fisheries production in seagrass
beds alone (McManus et al., 1992) (Table 3.28). Population studies of dominant seagrass­
based fish like siganids indicate their significant contribution to nearshore production, and
more importantly, to the nutrition of coastal communities. More realistically, the production
estimates made for coral reef fisheries should be considered as having very significant
inputs from seagrasses, especially for the herbivorous species. In the Bolinao reef system of
northern Philippines, siganids contribute 5 tons/km2/year or 40% of the reef-flat fisheries
(McManus et al., 1992). However, siganids showed a significant decrease in mean size at
first reproduction to as small as 3 cm, an unequivocal sign of selection pressure imposed by
overharvest. Considering that siganid fishes dominate most seagrass beds in the region,
their production can be used as an index for comparing the relative health of the beds, and
the extent to which these are exploited.
Table 3.28 Seagrass-based fisheries in Southeast Asia
Country
Fisheries
Cambodia
No data
China
No data
Indonesia
Siganids (rabbitfishes) are common across seagrass beds. Other fish include
lethrinids (breams), lutjanids (snappers), serranids (groupers), latids, sphyraenids
(barracudas), mugils (mullets), and mullids (goatfishes).
Malaysia
Serranids, theraponids, siganids, leiognathids (slipmouths), and lethrinids are
commonly caught.
Philippines
Siganids (both juveniles and adults) make up 1.23% of total marine fisheries;
Siganids make up 40% of reef flat fish production of 12 t/km2/yr in Bolinao. Harvest
of shells for ornamental products using rake-like gear can have negative impacts on
seagrass beds.
Thailand
Juvenile groupers and snappers; prawns and Acetes commercially harvested.
Viet Nam
No data
ASEAN-LCR
· Based on frequency: Apogonids (cardinal fish) > Gobiids (gobies) > Siganids
sites
(rabbit fish); Based on commercial importance: Siganids
· Four commercially important prawn species
· Two crab species exploited for food
Sources: McManus et al ., 1992, Poovachiranon et al ., 1994, Tomascik et al., 1997, National TDA Reports.

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Seahorse trade. Seahorses are used in Chinese medicine. The luxury trade, if left
unchecked can easily lead to the demise of populations (Vincent, 1994) (Table 3.29). All
participating countries except Cambodia are suppliers of seahorses, which are imported by
countries where affluent Chinese communities make up a significant portion of the
population. Seahorses in Southeast Asia have not made it to the CITES endangered list
largely because of the scanty information on population sizes, and minimal information on
the trade itself. Because they are small and slow, they are extremely vulnerable to mass
harvest. Annual imports are in millions of organisms, valued at USD 55-180 per kilo dry
weight, this incentive is too large for a realistic total ban. Recent studies by Vincent on pilot
grow-out of seahorses with local communities in Bohol, Philippines recommend sustainable
harvest practices in order to make the trade less destructive. One such step is the
maintenance of pregnant individuals in holding pens until they have given birth, thus
ensuring replacement of harvested individuals. Vincent, (1994) further notes that the
progress in the culture of some species, living in seagrass, made in Nha Trang
Oceanographic Institute in Viet Nam, may help ease the pressure on the wild populations.
Table 3.29 Salient features of the seahorse trade (data from Vincent, 1994)
EXPORTERS: China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam in
Southeast Asia. Others include Australia, Belize, Brazil, Kuwait, Mexico,
Pakistan, Spain, Tanzania, the United Arab Emirates, and the US.
IMPORTERS: China, Taiwan of China, Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan, Malaysia, South
Korea, US.
USES: Chinese medicine for asthma, arteriosclerosis, impotence, incontinence, etc.;
aquarium exhibits and for food
PRICE: USD 55 to 180 per kg of dried sea horses
ESTIMATED POPULATION SIZE: Unknown, approx 35 species worldwide
ESTIMATED GLOBAL TRADE: 20 million seahorses per year
· 20 tons or 6 million animals were consumed by China in 1992.
· Taiwan of China imported 3 million dried animals in 1993.
· The US bought 200,000 dried seahorses from the Philippines alone in 1987, perhaps for
sale in Chinatowns.
3.2
Overexploitation of living aquatic resources
3.2.1 Status of inland capture fisheries and culture production
Table 3.30 summarizes data contained in the TDA national reports of the seven
participating countries. Viet Nam leads in capture fisheries production with Thailand and
Indonesia-South China Sea subregions as a far second and third, resp. All together the
seven countries account for 13% of global freshwater production. Freshwater aquaculture
accounts for 1/5 of global production and provides fisheries 3.3 times more than that of its
capture-based counterpart. Total inland aquaculture production and capture fisheries, by the
7 countries, accounts for 18% of the world total.
The economic imperatives for pursuing freshwater aquaculture are obvious.
However, its growth should be pursued with policies cognizant of natural carrying capacities
of freshwater systems to support production even with artificial subsidies in the form of
feeds, chemicals and aeration, among others. Artificial subsidies degrade habitat quality and
consequently erode the capacities of natural systems to assimilate pollutants, mineralize
organics, and distribute sediments within hydrodynamic regimes. If aquaculture is to be

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sustained, anthropogenic inputs must be applied to maintain the health of the overall system,
and not to simply increase production, which will prove to be short-lived. Afterall, the basis
for aquaculture to enhance production lies in having a healthy natural system to begin with.
The cost of degraded habitats is basically dissipated long-term resource rents.
Table 3.32 indicates the level of exploitation for capture marine and freshwater
fisheries and the potential for expansion in aquaculture in inland waters. The qualitative
determination is based on the observed level of degradation of freshwater habitats such as
declining water quality, diminishing catches or culture production, and loss of biodiversity
(see discussion on natural wetlands). For China, Indonesia and the Philippines, the extent of
exploitation has reached full or overexploited levels. Habitat degradation has reached
unsustainable levels, threatening even the safety of public health with the consumption of
cultured organisms, such as when toxic algal blooms occur. Other countries have moderate
scope to expand their capture and culture fisheries because habitats have remained fairly
healthy. Cambodia, Viet Nam and Thailand may do so but must proceed very cautiously
even in the light of economic and demographic needs.
Table 3.30 Inland capture and production in seven participating countries
Country
Capture
Culture Production
Total
Fisheries
(t/yr)
(t/yr)
Cambodia
63,429
8,779
72,208
China-South China Sea
152,516
2,357,141
2,509,657
Indonesia-South China Sea
165,991
147,580
313,571
Malaysia
No data
No data
No data
Philippines-South China Sea
30,401
51,848
82,249
Thailand
168,502
No data
At least 168,500
Viet Nam
298,500
335,910
634,410
Total for 7 countries
At least 900,000
At least 3,000,000
At least 3,900,000
Total for world (1995)1
7,000,000
14,600,000
21,600,000
% of world production
13%
20%
18%
(National TDA Reports; 1FAO 1997b)
3.2.2 Status of marine capture fisheries and coastal aquaculture
For capture fisheries the contribution of the TDA participating countries is only 8.2%
of global marine production. Culture fisheries contribute a non-trivial 54% of the global total.
The share of the South China Sea countries is 12% of global total marine production (Table
3.31). Unlike freshwater systems, capture fisheries production is twice that of coastal
aquaculture, mainly because of the wide area of productive waters of the Sunda Shelf. All
states seem to have exploited their fisheries to a high degree except for Cambodia and
Malaysia which believe they can fiurther exploit marine waters (Table 3.32).

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If the economic value of culture production could include the cost of environmental
degradation brought about by this activity, a better comparison of the economic values of
production by capture and by culture could be made. The enormous habitat degradation
caused by coastal aquaculture (see discussion for mangrove habitats), is not accounted for.
International financing institutions will always show positive returns for aquaculture, and this
is justified by arguments of increasing food production and ensuring the capacities of
developing nations to meet their protein nutritional requirements. This archaic reasoning
must be substituted by appropriate policies to guide continued semi-intensive culture
systems. Expansion in terms of increasing production of existing ponds can be pursued in
Cambodia, and to a moderate extent in Malaysia-South China Sea and Viet Nam. The four
other countries need to pursue reforestation and other mitigating measures seriously. The
continued production of existing ponds may only be ensured by adapting more sustainable
practices.
Table 3.31 Marine production in seven partipating South China Sea countries
Country
Capture Fisheries
Culture
Total
(t/yr)
Production
(t/yr)
Cambodia
30,500
1,500
32,000
China-South China Sea
2,689,000
3,303,500
5,992,500
Indonesia-South China Sea
1,956,513
136,661
2,093,174
Malaysia
569,058
No data
At least 570,000
Philippines-South China Sea
120,592
At least 109
At least 120,700
Thailand1, 2
At least 768,650
234,000
At least 1,003,000
(for 23 major species)
Viet Nam
737,150
No data
At least 740,000
Total for 7 countries
6,871,463
3,604,465
10,475,928
Total for world (1995)3
84,000,000
6,700,000
90,700,000
% of world production
8.2%
54%
12%
1Potaros, 1995; 2 Siri Tookwinas & Dhana Yingcharoen, 1998; 3FAO 1997b; All other data from TDA National Reports
Table 3.32 Degree of exploitation in capture fisheries and the potential for expansion in
culture production (qualitative data from TDA national reports)
Country
Degree of exploitation
Potential for expansion
of capture fisheries
of culture production
(Low, Moderate, High)
(Low, Moderate, High)
Marine
Inland
Marine
Inland
Cambodia
Low
Moderate
High
Moderate
China-South China
High
High
Low
Low
Sea
Indonesia-South
High
High
Low
Low
China Sea
Malaysia-South
Moderate
No data
Moderate
No data
China Sea
Philippines-South
High
High
Low
Low
China Sea
Thailand
High
Moderate
Low
Moderate
Viet Nam
High
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate

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3.2.3 Status of the capture fisheries potential in the South China Sea
Maximum sustainable yield (MSY) estimates are difficult to determine and there are
inherent limitations in estimating them (Hillborn and Walters, 1992). Country-based MSYs
are even less credible in that the range of fish stocks is never coincident with territorial
boundaries. To constrain these uncertainties, estimations at basin level are made to better
approximate production potentials. Table 3.33 indicates the habitat and bathymetric
subdivisions of the South China Sea that were used by Pauly and Christensen, (1993) to
estimate the potential catch from the South China Sea basin. At the level of subdivisions,
they showed that coral reefs 10 to 50 m are fully exploited. Shallow waters with some scope
for increased production are those located along the Viet Nam/Chinese and Bornean
shelves. They may have actually been realized by now. The MSYs for the rest of the shallow
habitats could not be estimated, but other indicators show they are fully or over-exploited.
On the whole, an additional 841,000 t/yr can be had from the South China Sea if it is
possible to tap the production of the deep shelf and the open ocean by exploiting large
pelagics and cephalods (Pauly and Christensen, 1993).
Yanagawa, (1997) presents another South China Sea basin-wide estimate, this time
with a focus on small pelagics, which can comprise shared and straddling stocks among the
littoral states (Table 3.34). His study covers the period from 1978 to 1993, during which peak
years are identified. He notes that after 1987, most of the 12 small pelagic fisheries reached
full levels of exploitation. Furthermore, the rapid increase from 1976 to 1983 was
accompanied by alternation of major species, again indicative of massive fishing selection
pressure.
Thus, at the basin level, these two studies indicate that most of the conventional
small pelagic species comprising the South China Sea capture fisheries, are already fully
exploited. On a habitat division basis, only a few sections of the shelf can sustain further
expansion. The deepwater catch may have greater scope to sustain higher fishing
pressures, but economics and technology may prove to be the major constraints in catching
at great depths.
Table 3.33 Fisheries potential of the South China Sea
(modified after Pauly and Christensen, 1993)
Subdivision
Area
Primary
Potential catch
Actual
(103 km2)
Production
103 t yr-1
catch
(t km-2 yr-1)
103 t yr-1
Shallow areas to 10 m
172
3,650 No estimate but fully exploited
1,046
Reef flats and seagrasses
21
4,023 No estimate but fully exploited
275
to 10 m
Gulf of Thailand to 50 m
133
3,650 No estimate but fully exploited
1,242
Viet Nam and China shelf
280
3,003
1,860
453
to 50 m
Northwest Phil to 10 m
28
913 No estimate
315
Bornean shelf to 10 m
144
913
257
105
Southwest shelf to 10 m
112
2,433 No estimate but fully exploited
962
Coral reefs, 10-50 m
77
2,766
295
291
Deep shelf 50-200m
928
730
1,688
176
Open ocean 200-4000 m
1,605
400
1,686
80
Total South China Sea
3,500
Mean = 1,143
4,945

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Table 3.34 Small pelagic fisheries in the South China Sea, 1978-1993
(Yanagawa, 1997)
Group
Peak landings
Peak year
(mt)
Round scads
596,000
1991
Selar scads
229,000
1990
Jacks, cavalla and trevallies
147,000
1993
Indian mackerel
357,000
1992
Indo-Pacific mackerel
212,000
1993
Spanish mackerel
114,000
1993
Kawakawa
283,000
1992
Frigate and bullet tunas
128,000
1992
Sardines
716,000
1993
Anchovies
419,000
1993
3.2.4 Status of large pelagics: the case of tunas
Because large pelagics including tunas and perhaps sharks, are highly migratory, the
global ocean, not the basin scale, is most appropriate in analyzing their state of exploitation.
Four South China Sea nations are among the top ten leading tuna fishing nations of the
world. The combined catch of Taiwan of China, Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand
consistently made up 23% of the global landed catch over a six-year period from 1988 to
1993. Peckham, (1995) notes that the catch of the South China Sea countries at 725,200 t
and of the world at slightly over 3 million tons, has stabilized, and may indicate full state of
exploitation (Table 3.35). An analysis of the trade in tuna and tuna products is discussed in
3.2.6.
Table 3.35 World production of principal tuna species by principal fishing nations, 1988-
1993 (103 mt) (data from Peckham, 1995)
Country
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
Japan
753.2
673.1
653.9
717.1
669.1
776.6
Taiwan of China
220.4
256.7
308.1
230.4
332.2
282.0
Spain
242.4
250.3
263.1
265.8
253.5
255.0
Republic of Korea
147.1
170.9
232.7
266.5
224.6
241.0
United States
276.0
245.2
232.6
235.6
261.3
221.3
Indonesia
170.5
180.1
202.8
211.1
216.3
216.0
France
152.9
142.1
152.7
168.8
234.3
158.5
Philippines
113.0
126.8
180.8
198.0
176.0
148.5
Mexico
132.8
136.9
125.7
129.0
131.5
118.5
Thailand
92.9
82.1
102.4
84.8
74.5
78.7
Total for South
596.8
645.7
794.1
724.3
799.0
725.2
China Sea
countries
Global total
2,847.9
2,853.0
3,071.1
3,144.8
3,167.9
3,202.00
South China Sea
21%
23%
26%
23%
25%
23%
contribution to
Global Total

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3.2.5 Immediate causes of overexploitation by country
Many factors cause unsustainable levels of fishing pressure, especially in the
nearshore. Destructive fishing practices, bycatch, post-harvest losses, siltation and habitat
destruction are among the major ones (Table 3.36) (Silvestre and Pauly, 1997). Region-
wide, the issues of overexploitation are common, with perhaps qualitative differences for
Cambodia which has emerged from civil strife, and for Viet Nam which has just entered the
free market economy. Nonetheless, demographic and development pressures seem to be
the common socio-economic drivers in the overharvest of aquatic resources.
Table 3.36 Immediate causes of overexploited coastal fisheries in participating South China
Sea countries (modified after Silvestre and Pauly, 1997; National TDA Reports)
Key issues
Cam
Chi
Ind
Mal
Phil
Tha
Viet
1. Overfishing
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
2. Inappropriate exploitation
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
patterns
3. Destructive fishing practices
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
4. Small and large scale fisheries
ü
ü
ü
ü
conflicts
5. Losses due to bycatch
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
6. Post-harvest losses
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
7. Siltation
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
8. Habitat destruction
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
9. Reduced biodiversity
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
10. Land-based pollution
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
11. Oil spills
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
3.2.6 Transboundary issues associated with overexploitation
A significant number of the causes and impacts of overharvesting of living aquatic
resources is transboundary in nature (Table 3.37). Although the information base to show
these transboundary features is poor, there are significant indicators that can be used to
identify and highlight them. The loss of biodiversity in marine habitats was discussed in
previous sections. The presumably fully exploited states of small pelagics and tunas have
also been shown retrospectively with catches reaching stable peaks, followed by a change in
species composition of the fishery (Yanagawa, 1997, Peckham, 1995). The subsequent
analysis will therefore deal mainly with bycatch, food security and fishery trade.
High bycatch of commercial operations. FAO, (1997a) discussed the sources of
wastage in fisheries. Many terms have been used to describe wastage and the matrix below
is drawn to clarify their meanings. In general, wastage is composed of discards at sea and
post-harvest losses. Thus, damaged target species and bycatch make up discards.
Moreover, the classification of target vs. non-target species is highly variable with species
being classified as one or the other, depending on preferences and seasonality of market
demands.
TOTAL CATCH
GEAR SELECTIVITY
Target species or group
Non-target species or
group
Discarded catch (thrown Damaged, small size, of Bycatch ­ Amounts not

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UNEP SCS/TDA
Page 43
away at sea; amounts not inferior quality; disposed of to recorded nor reported
recorded nor reported)
meet quota limits ­ Amounts
not recorded nor reported
Retained catch (portion that Desired species or group; Incidental catch including
gets landed and recorded)
retained juveniles = trash fish juveniles = trash fish
Discarded bycatch comprises perhaps the most significant source of wastage in the
global fisheries. FAO, (1997b) notes that if a small number of mature specimens from a
healthy stock make up the bycatch, the incurred fishing mortality may cause relatively small
damage. However, when the bycatch consists of many juveniles of commercially exploited
stocks, the impact on the viability of populations or stocks may be severe. Commercial
operations (trawling, seining, bagnetting, etc.) are perhaps the biggest source of bycatch
wastage. By virtue of the efficiency of gear capture and the wide area of operations,
commercial fleets make up monopolies of the sea, with a singular contribution to
overexploitation. In many cases, their aggregate fishing pressure far exceeds that exerted by
subsistence fishers, who are often blamed for overharvest.
FAO, (1994 in FAO, 1997b) estimated that discarding of bycatch amounted to an
average of 27 million tons per year, or approximately 32% of the global annual production of
marine capture fisheries. The issue is not only transboundary but of a global significance as
well, especially when the catch potential of the world's oceans seems to have been reached.
Assuming that this percentage is a conservative estimate for South China Sea states, this
translates to 2.2 million tons/year of current (and future) fish that is lost.
Bycatch cannot be totally eliminated for biological, technological, economic and legal
reasons (FAO, 1997a). However, the magnitude it has reached poses imminent danger to
fish stocks and to food security. Karnicki, (1995) notes that in order to maintain 1993 world
annual fish consumption rate of 13 kg/person in the year 2010, the amount of fish for direct
human consumption should be increased from 72.3 to 91 million t/year. To achieve this,
considering that marine stocks are fully or over exploited, he suggests three approaches.
First is to reduce waste, and to use bycatch; second, increase consumption of small
pelagics, and third: use unconventional species like krill.
The issue of bycatch in particular, and the need for responsible fisheries, in general,
is covered by a number of international initiatives (FAO, 1997b). All drawn in 1995, they
include the Rome Consensus on World Fisheries, Article 7 of the Code of Conduct on
Responsible Fisheries, and the Kyoto Declaration and Plan of Action on the Sustainable
Contribution of Fisheries to Food Security. They provide the broad context of global
collaboration needed to implement sustainable fishing practices. The UNCLOS Agreement
for the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish
Stock focuses on stocks that are exploited within national territories as well as in the high
seas. The mix of jurisdictions demands international collaboration if the bottom line is to
sustain such populations. All these initiatives apply to the South China Sea, taking into
account the biological state of the resources and the development goals of the littoral states.

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Table 3.37 Transboundary issues on overexploitation
Transboundary issues
Cam Chi
Ind
Mal
Phil
Tha
Viet
And quality of information
Inland fisheries
Loss of biodiversity in the Mekong
ü
ü
ü
ü
River Basin, including endemic
species, and migratory organisms,
a number of which are considered
endangered ­ Poor
Marine fisheries
Loss of biodiversity among shared
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
stocks and genetic resources ­
Poor
Fully exploited production of
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
shared and migratory stocks
(small and big pelagics) ­ Poor
High bycatch by commercial
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
operations ­ Poor
Loss of breeding grounds, and
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
recruitment and spawning areas ­
Poor
Regional food security in ability to
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
meet protein nutritional
requirements ­ Fair
Fishery trade of overexploited and
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
endangered stocks ­ Poor
Foreign poaching - Poor
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
Regional food security. FAO defines food security as "physical and economic access,
by all people at all times, to the basic food they need (cited in Williams 1996). A fundamental
question is whether the South China Sea countries, richly endowed with aquatic resources,
are secure in accessing this wealth for food. Table 3.38 summarizes parameters used in this
analysis to determine population pressure on fish production, and the role trade should take
in achieving the seemingly diametrically opposed goals of revenue generation and food
security. To maintain current patterns of fish consumption in the year 2005, Cambodia,
Philippines and Viet Nam will require more fish more than they produced in 1994 assuming
that 100% of the catch in these three countries will be available for domestic consumption. If
Cambodia and Viet Nam wish to reach the nutritional minimum requirement of 21.5
kg/person/year in 2005 (assuming 50% dependence on fish for animal protein) they need to
dramatically increase food production; Cambodia by 270% of its production in 1994, and Viet
Nam by 163%. Indonesia may have enough, but the population distribution is so
heterogeneous and transport infrastructure so poor that there will be severe shortages in
overpopulated areas but sufficient supplies in less crowded ones. Thailand and Malaysia
have successfully reduced population growth rates, so that domestic demands need not be
sacrificed for export revenues.

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Currently, South China Sea countries are net exporters, and will most likely remain
so assuming no drastic reductions in fish production. Regionally, total population by 2005 will
reach 503 million using current growth rates. For all to reach the minimum nutritional
requirement, about 86% of current production will be consumed domestically for food. This
implies that the region can export 14%, at most. If export levels are to increase beyond 14%,
either domestic consumption will fall below the minimum requirement, total fish production
will have to be increased, or population growth rate will have to be reduced. Reductions in
harvest wastage will also be a strategic measure. The options may be difficult to optimize
toward one goal or the other, but a compromise towards long-term benefits for society, the
ecology and the economy will have to be formed now.
The South China Sea countries will have to define their priorities within an evolving
context of trade globalization and the eventual removal of tariff barriers as defined by usually
inequitable trade agreements. Whether or not these include the domestic demands of a
growing population and the protection of their extremely vulnerable living resource base, is a
most crucial decision to be made now.
Table 3.38 Fish requirements in selected South China Sea countries for the year 2005 (data
as cited by Silvestre and Pauly, 1997, 1998 World Almanac)
Country
Populatio
Finite
Population
Fish
Total fish
Total fish
n1996
growth
2005 (106)
consumptio
produced,
required
(106)
rate (%)
n (kg/p/y)
1994
for food in
(103 t/y)
2005
(103 t/y)
Cambodia
10.2
2.7
13.0
12.0
103
156
Indonesia
197.6
1.5
225.9
15.5
4,060
3,502
Malaysia
20.6
2.0
24.6
29.5
1,173
726
Philippines
69.3
2.2
84.3
36.1
2,657
3,043
Thailand
61.4
1.0
67.2
25.3
3,432
1,699
Viet Nam
76.3
1.6
88.0
13.4
1,155
1,179
Fishery trade. Tables 3.39 and 3.40 give an overview of the value of the share of
South China Sea countries (no data for Cambodia and Viet Nam) in the world fishery trade.
Exports coming from six South China Sea countries accounted for an average of 11% of
world exports yearly for the period 1988-1992. Their share of imports was only 4% of the
yearly global value. Thus, the region is a net exporter of fishery products with a net trade
surplus of USD 3.5 billion posted in 1992. The more affluent states of Brunei and Singapore
were net importers, while the rest were net exporters, notably Thailand whose export
earnings was 3.3 times that of imports.
The consumption rates of fish per capita per year (Table 3.38) shows that the
Philippines, Malaysia and Thailand are above the minimum requirement of 21.5%.
Indonesia, Viet Nam and Cambodia have still to reach this. Average consumption rates only
apply if fish are available. For food security, further analysis will have to be made if South
China Sea countries are serious in meeting nutritional needs for all. How trade impinges on
fish availability becomes a significant question before meaningful macroeconomic policies
can be formed at the national and regional levels.

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Table 3.39 Share of selected South China Sea countries in world exports of fishery
products, in USD 1,000 (data from Ferdouse, 1994)
Country
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
Indonesia
664,483
767,422
983,571
1,192,082
1,178,552
Malaysia
191,242
210,140
229,514
264,938
302,576
Philippines
407,504
409,879
395,960
467,729
393,997
Thailand
1,630,891
1,959,428
2,264,937
2,901,366
3,071,780
Brunei
300
350
380
440
400
Singapore
356,193
359,071
414,810
499,950
494,128
Total for 6
3,250,613
3,706,290
4,289,172
5,326,505
5,441,433
South China
Sea
countries
Global total
31,804,116
35,886,233
39,539,969
43,546,408
45,451,914
% of Global
10
10
11
12
12
total
Table 3.40 Share of selected South China Sea countries in world imports of fishery
products, in USD 1,000 (data from Ferdouse, 1994)
Country
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
Indonesia
19,376
30,850
42,777
47,395
56,145
Malaysia
143,508
164,552
145,831
170,478
244,789
Philippines
63,063
65,730
84,809
96,109
111,000
Thailand
537,918
726,846
794,423
1,049,962
942,092
Brunei
7,404
7,180
7,160
6,780
7,000
Singapore
370,311
366,126
361,582
460,545
543,769
Total for 6
1,141,580
1,361,284
1,436,582
1,831,269
1,904,795
South China
Sea
countries
Global total
35,269,622
35,886,233
39,539,969
43,546,408
45,451,914
% of Global
3
4
4
4
4
total
The tuna trade. The status of tuna on a global scale was discussed earlier and the
fisheries have probably reached a stable state of full exploitation. The role South China Sea
countries play in this trade is of utmost importance. Table 3.41 highlights the fact that three
South China Sea countries (Thailand, Philippines and Indonesia) were responsible for an
average of 72% of the world tuna export market during the period 1990 to 1993. Using data
on canned tuna production in these countries, export accounts for 91 to 96% of total
production (Table 3.42). In contrast, Japan exports only 3-5% of what it produces. Spain and
Portugal sell about 16 and 30 % of their production, respectively. The US does not export its
canned tuna. Japan, Western Europe, and the US, used 83 to 90% of their tuna products for
their domestic needs (Table 3.43).
These trading patterns indicate that affluent countries are net importers and that low-
income food-deficit countries become net exporters as fish becomes a scarce commodity.
These patterns evolve in response to profit being the major market force, and where agri-
based economies have to exchange natural capital for hard cash.

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Page 47
Table 3.41 Exports of canned tuna, 1990-1993
(1000 standard cases, at 48 cans/case) (Peckham, 1995)
Country
1990
1991
1992
1993
Thailand
26,340
30,843
27,529
29,223
Philippines
4,944
4,853
5,220
6,067
Ivory Coast
4,421
5,368
4,432
5,636
Indonesia
2,098
4,642
2,150
2,818
Senegal
1,815
2,055
1,816
2,363
Spain
1,258
1,846
1,673
2,200
Ecuador
188
471
868
2,044
France
668
674
675
1,060
Malagasy
-
-
-
992
Seychelles
447
703
620
670
Italy
464
480
388
620
Maldives
528
561
558
581
Portugal
410
683
580
440
Venezuela
106
282
87
432
Japan
433
518
340
390
Total-South China Sea
33,382
40,338
34,899
38,118
countries
Global total
44,420
54,479
47,336
56,036
Contribution of South China
75%
74%
74%
68%
Sea countries to Global total
Table 3.42 Percentage of production exported by leading producers of canned tuna, 1990 to
1993 (data after Peckham, 1995)
Country
1990
1991
1992
1993
US
0
0
0
0
Thailand
100
98
93
95
Spain
13
16
18
24
Japan
4
5
3
4
Philippines
97
99
100
96
Mexico
0
0
0
0
Indonesia
64
91
86
91
Senegal
91
98
96
94
Portugal
24
31
32
21
Iran
0
0
0
0
Ecuador
12
34
54
100
Table 3.43 Comparison of domestic use and catch by principal markets, 1990-93
(103 mt) (Peckham, 1995)
Market
1990
1991
1992
1993
Japan
834
883
867
1,014
Western Europe
686
803
805
812
United States
710
794
760
642
Other
309
338
353
334
Total Usage
2,539
2,818
2,785
2,802
Total Catch
3,071
3,145
3,168
3,202
% Used for domestic
83%
90%
88%
88%
consumption

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The trade of sharks and shark fisheries products. The biology of sharks is not well
known and they may migrate throughout the South China Sea. They are also caught as
bycatch by gear targetting tuna and swordfish, among others. Currently, the demand for
shark products is running high for their medicinal, exotic food, and ornamental uses
(TRAFFIC 1996). The trade in Southeast Asia is particularly interesting. Thailand started its
shark fisheries in 1947 and Malaysia, 14 years later. Philippines and Indonesia began in the
early `70s. To date, Indonesia leads the four South China Sea countries based on landed
catch (Table 3.44). In terms of biodiversity, at least 27 species are landed in the Philippines,
17 in Thailand, and 6 in Malaysia. The faunistic overlap between Thailand and the
Philippines is minimal, and between these two countries, a total of 42 species has been
recorded, with only three species common to both (Table 3.45). No species list was available
for Indonesia but it could very well exceed the number recorded for the Philippines.
Table 3.44 Commercial elasmobranch fisheries in South China Sea countries
(1950-1991) (103 mt) (modified after TRAFFIC 1996)
Country
1950
1960
1970
1980
1985
1991
Thailand
2
4.3
22.4
9.5
9.2
11.8
Malaysia
-
3.2
3.6
10.9
10.3
16.9
(1961)
Indonesia
-
-
10.3
42.9
54.3
79.8
(1971)
Philippines
6.9
9.7
10.9
19
Table 3.45 Shark and ray species landed in South China Sea countries
(data from TRAFFIC 1996)
Country
Philippines
Thailand
Malaysia
Aetoplatea zonura
ü
Alopias vulpinus
ü
Atelomycterus marmoratus
ü
Carcharhinus amblyrhynchoides
ü
C. amblyrhynchos
ü
ü
C. amboinensis
ü
C. brevipinna
ü
C. dussumieri
ü
C. leucas
ü
C. limbatus
ü
C. melanopterus
ü
ü
C. sorrah
ü
Centrophorus spp
ü
Centroscyllium cf. kamoharai
ü
Chiloscyllium griseum
ü
C. indicum
ü
ü
C. punctatum
ü
Dasyatis sp.
ü
Dasyatis kuhlii
ü
Galeocerdo cuvier
ü
Gymnura sp
ü
Hemitriakis leucoperiptera
ü
Continued Table 3.45
Country
Philippines
Thailand
Malaysia
Hexanchus griseus
ü

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UNEP SCS/TDA
Page 49
Hexatrygon sp.
ü
Himantura uarnak
ü
Himantura undulata
ü
Isurus oxyrinchus
ü
Mustelus cf. griseus
ü
Nebrius ferrugineus
ü
Pristis cuspidatus
ü
Rhyncobatis djiddensis
ü
Rhincodon typus
ü
Rhinobatidae
ü
Rhizoprinodon acutus
ü
R. oligolinx
ü
Scoliodon laticaudus
ü
S. sorrakawa
ü
Scyliorhinus tprazame
ü
Sphyrna sp.
ü
ü
S. lewini
ü
S. mokarran
ü
ü
S. zygaena
ü
Squalus acanthias
ü
S. cf. rancureli
ü
Taeniura lymma
ü
Triaenodon obesus
ü
Total
27
17
6
Table 3.46 indicates the major markets for Philippine exports on sharkfins and shark
liver oil and compounds. Hong Kong, Japan, Korea and Singapore bought the most shark
fins, evidently for shark fin soups. Japan was the major market for shark liver oil and
compounds.
Thailand shows a clever trading strategy in importing cheap raw materials and re-
exporting value added shark goods with 265 to 385% markup in price per kg (Table 3.47). In
1994, it imported, mainly from Canada, Hong Kong and Japan, shark products weighing
130,000 kg costing 10 million USD. It exported only 27% of this weight but sold it at 10.5
million USD. Major markets in 1994 included Hongkong and Japan. The trading pattern
changed dramatically from 1993 to 1994. In 1993, Thailand imported 80% of the total volume
of its raw materials from Asia, but exported only 28% of its products to markets in this region.
In 1994, Asia accounted for 60% of both exports from and imports into Thailand.
Traditionally, shark meat is consumed domestically. The more exotic shark products,
such as those used for producing squalene oil, command lucrative prices and hence, the
economic push to hunt for more. Because of the high uncertainties involved in determining
exploitable elasmobranch biomass, it might be prudent to limit catches for the production of
high value products. The supply of shark meat for domestic consumption must also be
managed appropriately. More than economic tradeoffs will have to be considered in the use
of living resources whose renewal rates are finite, and when food security is at stake.

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Table 3.46 Philippine exports of shark fins, shark liver oil and non-modified chemical
fractions, 1993-1994 (data from TRAFFIC 1996):
Importer
Shark fins
Shark liver oil and compounds
1993
1994
1993
1994
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
(net kg)
FOB$
(net kg)
FOB$
(net kg)
FOB$
(net kg)
FOB$
Australia
20
200
Brunei
698
5,214
478
5,974
China
350
3,500
Mainland
Hong Kong
30,837
295,464
9,478
92,097
Japan
461
17,854
97,349
806,070
26,875
207,228
Korea
500
9,760
1,800
52,380
39,017
39,017
14,400
148,104
Singapore
186
1,860
481
8,502
Taiwan of
190
1,000
China
Total
32,682
330,152
12,607
162,653
136,556
846,087
41,275
355,332
Average
10.10
12.90
6.20
8.61
Price $/kg
Table 3.47 Thailand shark fin trade, exports and imports in 1994
(data from TRAFFIC 1996)
Trading
Exports out of Thailand
Imports into Thailand
Partner
1993
1994
1993
1994
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
(kg)
(Baht)
(kg)
(Baht)
(kg)
(Baht)
(kg)
(Baht)
Austria
13
43,652
Australia
17
20,373
Brunei
2
10,070
Canada
9
4,550
5
3,198
1,918
2,317,068
26,890
14,565,421
China (Main)
2,311
2,116,682
Chile
3
10,650
Denmark
742
132,707
Hong Kong
5,491
1,601,778
12,569
11,741,410
19,218
7,036,461
26,768
7,968,417
India
15,713
6,469,721
Indonesia
12,048
4,170,578
13,795
3,755,571
Japan
661
1,181,598
6,642
5,604,932
28,390
7,568,445
38,213
6,570,914
Malaysia
2
10,070
Myanmar
432
67,560
Norway
3,471
1,592,460
2,240
1,357,343
US
3,073
861,328
Viet Nam
2,146
516,666
250
60,401
Trade with
28%
13%
57%
41%
80%
78%
62%
46%
Asia
Total trade
21,856
20,796,459
34,538
42,175,190
99,750
35,857,793
127,442
40,338,131
Average
952
1,221
359
317
Price B/kg

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Making fisheries trade responsible. Market forces have been righty blamed for
overfishing, over-investment, and the consequent collapse of commercial fish stocks. They
shaped the over-all development of the world fisheries (Karnicki, 1995) such that 30% of
total production was traded at USD 3 billion in 1980 to USD 40 billion in 1993. In Southeast
Asia, the littoral states became the leaders in shrimp culture production.
Such market forces also identify where subsidies should be infused such as in the
build up of fishing fleets, the development of highly efficient fishing gear and price support,
all of which led to serious economic losses through the backlash of adverse environmental
impacts. Thus, the economic regimes, within which fisheries at its currently vulnerable stage
can be sustained, will have to be totally redefined. Such regimes must take into account
long-term ecological parameters such as renewable rates and carrying capacities, and the
quality of life of domestic consumers, as the bases for economic incentives to conserve
living aquatic resources.
Tietze (1995) suggests the mobilization of fisheries credit for domestic marketing in
Asia and the Pacific as an approach to maximize the social and economic benefits from the
fisheries. Nutritional requirements including those of marginal sectors, dependence on fish
protein, traditional groups involved in markets and distribution, and the associated
institutional and regulatory frameworks, are among the major social and institutional factors
to be considered. Tietze notes that given limited fish supplies, a growing demand, and trade
globalization, fish marketing and processing in Asia will tend towards regionalization and
commercialization. Such will not necessarily lead to a decrease in the market share of
domestic consumption because of:
(1) increasing purchasing power in the region,
(2) new market opportunities for value-added products,
(3) scope for processing under-utilized species, and
(4) the external supplies of raw materials with trade liberalization.
Given this broad context, the scale of credit mobilization is critical. Small-scale trade
facilities reach the marginalized sectors, and the medium- to large-scale operations provide
for market infrastructure needed to promote domestic trading at wider scales.
The macro and microeconomic instruments to support domestic fish markets, while
protecting the living resource base, must take into account the fundamental shift in focus
from profit (export markets) to domestic food security. At the regional level, the trade of
shared stocks, migratory species and straddling stocks must be based on the precautionary
principle where information uncertainties cannot provide for MSY estimates, but where best
science can help set quota limits.
3.3
Pollution of aquatic environments
3.3.1 Overview of ranked sources of pollution
Table 3.48 summarizes the sources of pollution of the participating countries in the
South China Sea, the quality of the database, and the perceived contribution of these
sources to the state of aquatic environments in each country. Wastes from domestic,
agricultural, and industrial sources, along with sediments and solid wastes are the major
sources of pollutants that impinge on both freshwater and coastal systems in the seven
countries. Land-based sources play a major role in both inland and coastal pollution. Ship-
based sources contribute relatively small amounts, but may have severe impacts when large
volumes are released such as during major oil spills. Atmospheric inputs may seem

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innocuous at the present time because of a very poor database and because their impacts
are harder to establish given the nature of atmospheric chemistry and the larger scales
needed to carry out appropriate studies of air sheds. It must be pointed out however, that
atmospheric pollutants are most potent in being transported across national boundaries. This
was made evident during the extensive forest fires that occurred in Indonesia that caused
smoke to shroud Malaysia and western Philippines. On a global scale, the ashfall debris
injected into the stratosphere by Mt. Pinatubo's eruption caused major weather anomalies
worldwide.
The density of pollution data differs from nation to nation. (See Appendix 1 for the
detailed data compilation of waste production by country). Taken as a regional data set,
major gaps exist and there is great need to monitor the major pollutant sources and the rates
at which they release pollutants. Monitoring data is often non-existent or in some cases of
such poor quality that they are better ignored than used for management decisions.
Monitoring the amount of effluent dumped and its effects are essential before remediative
efforts are made. Given that pollutants enter water bodies from point and diffuse sources,
and interact with the substrate, suspended and dissolved load, it is difficult to attribute any
impact to a pollutant or a source with unequivocal certainty. It cannot be repeated enough
how important monitoring data are. They provide information on the current state of the
environment, the natural variability or noise in the system, the input from anthropogenic
sources and the result of mitigative effforts. The impacts are influenced by the nature of the
pollutants, not in isolation of other substances and particles in the water but in their
interaction with these. Hence, the management of pollution requires a holistic view of the
natural and anthropogenic sources and their impacts. Appropriate mitigation can only be
achieved by reducing loads across all man-made sources, and by addressing the social and
economic drivers which influence these.
Table 3.48 Ranked sources of pollution among participating countries
in the South China Sea1.
Source
Rank &
Contribution to pollution of national aquatic
Data
environments
base
(L=Low, M= Moderate, H= High)
Ca
Ch
Indo
Mal
Phil
Tha
Viet
· Domestic waste
1-Fair
H
H
H
M
H
H
H
· Agricultural waste
2-Poor
M
H
H
M
H
H
H
· Industrial waste
2-Poor
M
H
H
H
H
H
H
· Sediments
3-Poor
M
H
H
M
H
H
H
· Solid waste
4-Fair
H
H
H
M
H
H
H
· Hydrocarbons
5-Poor
L
M
H
M
M
M
M
· Ship-based sources
6-Poor
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
· Atmospheric
7-Poor
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
1Ranking of pollution sources was done during the Second Meeting of National Coordinators (June 1998).

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Figure 5. Biochemical oxygen demand loading from domestic sources in each

sub-division in the South China Sea.

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3.3.2 Domestic wastewater
The data given by the national reports were not amenable to comparisons across
countries, but the raw data they provided on a subnational level was crucial in generating the
regional picture for watersheds that interact with the South China Sea basin. (See Appendix
1.) To make the data comparable, subnational population growth rates were used to
estimate 1996 populations at the South China Sea country level. The BOD generated by
each South China Sea country was approximated using WHO daily per capita generation of
0.05 kg. Koe and Aziz, (1995) provided estimates of daily BOD removal for four countries.
About 6 million tons of BOD are generated each year by the coastal population of the
7 participating countries of the South China Sea alone (Table 3.49). Of these, only 11% is
removed by sewage treatment in four countries. Assuming the same population growth rates
prevail up to 2005, the generated BOD will increase to 6.6 million tonnes. If the amount
removed by sewage treatment is not significantly increased from the insignificant level of
11%, the coastal waters of the Sunda Shelf from the Indo-China Peninsula to Malaysia and
Indonesia, across to the western Philippine shelf, will become eutrophic.
One of the signs of a reduced assimilative capacity are the frequent incidence of
toxic and non-toxic algal blooms in the region. While science still has to determine the
mechanisms behind the dynamics of blooms, which occur both in polluted and pristine
areas, the role of nutrients in enhancing primary production has been known since Leibig's
times in the 1890's. Various species exist along a gradient of nutrient concentrations, so that
some prefer low levels while others require high nutrient concentrations. The monospecific
dominance that occurs during blooms may be because of optimal nutrient regimes and the
concurrent hatching of cysts that may have been seeded in previous blooms and biologically
disturbed sufficiently to excyst. The horizontal transport of cyst material may be possible but
perhaps occur only at localized scales because of its relatively heavy density. Events like the
warm phase of the El Nino-Southern Oscillation may influence the development and spread
of toxic algal blooms (MacLean, 1989).
Because human populations congregate in cities, it will be most strategic to prioritize
the establishment of sewage treatments in the emerging megacities of the littoral states. In
the seven countries, there are 93 cities with populations over 100,000 (Table 2.2). To date,
at least 30% of the population live in these crowded areas, so that waters receiving domestic
waste from these cities are themselves pollution hot spots.

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Table 3.49 Generation of BOD by participating South China Sea countries
Country1
South China
Population in
Pop growth
BOD
BOD removed
Sea
cities (x 103
rate (%)3
generated
by sewage
Population2
persons) (% of
( 103 ton/yr)4
treament5
(% National)
South China Sea
(103 ton/yr)
(x 103
population)
persons)
Cambodia
1,985
1,775
2.7
36.2
No treatment
(18%)
(89%)
China
59,694
21,031
1.6
1,089.4
<10%
(5%)
(35%)
Indonesia
105,217
>50,161
2.9
1,920.2
364
(50%)
(48%)
Malaysia
10,336
1,527
3.3
188.6
53
(51%)
(15%)
Philippines
23,633
6,342
2.1
431.3
149
(31%)
(27%)
Thailand
37,142
0
1.4
677.8
89
(62%)
Viet Nam
75,124
2,144
1.6
1,371.0
No treatment
(100%)
(3%)
Total
313,131
>82,980
1.4
5,714.5
655
(19%)
(>27%)
(11%)
2005
359,837
6,567.0
722
(1995 level of
treatment)
1Only populations of subdivisions interacting with the South China Sea were included, and were recalculated to 1996
using growth rates in third column.
2Total population for all South China Sea subdivisions in a country was obtained.
3Average population growth rate for all South China Sea subdivisions in a country was obtained using a weighted mean
method.
4 Estimated BOD production using 0.05 kg/person/day (Economopoulous 1993)
5 Koe and Aziz, 1995.
3.3.3 Agricultural waste
Table 3.50 Use of fertilizers and pesticides in South China Sea countries
(TDA national reports)
South China Sea
Rice fields
Aquaculture
Fertilizer use
Pesticide use
subregions
( 103 ha)
areas (103 ha)
(ton/yr)
(ton/yr)
Cambodia
1,835
No data
>40,000
No data
China
3,425
2,476
3,636,685
>89,000
Indonesia
4,966
243
>5,600,000
28,706
Malaysia
No data
7
No data
No data
Philippines
1,236
20
181,084
No data
Thailand
8,613
No data
No data
No data
Viet Nam
1,500
No data
110,250
No data
Total
>9,600,000
>>118,000

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Waste generated by agriculture and aquaculture and which enters water bodies in a
diffuse mode, makes up the second most important group of pollutants in the seven
countries (Second National Coordinator's Meeting) and in the region (Koe and Aziz, 1995).
These include fertilizers and pesticides (fungicides, herbicides and insecticides) which are
applied to enhance plant growth and production by eliminating their competitors, predators
and parasites. China uses the most amount of fertilizer at 1000 kg/ha/yr and Cambodia, the
least at 22 kg/ha/yr. Fertilizers when leached to aquatic environments contribute to nutrient
loading in addition to that contributed by domestic sources. To evolve environmentally
friendly farm practices that minimize the use of fertilisers and biocides, and to enhance soil
retention of fertilisers should be the aim of efficient farmers.
Data on pesticide use is scarce, and detecting its presence in aquatic environments
requires expensive methods that most government laboratories in the region cannot afford.
However, it is important to determine their concentrations in waters next to intensive farming
areas as they can decimate biodiversity and productivity in aquatic systems. China reports
more than 89,000 tons used in its South China Sea areas in 1995. Indonesia used about
29,000 tons annually during the period 1992-1996 (Table 3.50).
The ill effects of pesticides have been established. As antibiotics, their continued use
lead to resistance among target organisms making their population growth less controllable.
The more insiduous effects of pesticides are on non-target organisms that are critical to
ecosystem function as well as directly to man. They also have a host of adverse effects on
man including carcinogenic properties. Integrated pest control programs have been
implemented in a number of countries, and the use of pesticides should be reduced to
minimum levels.
In the past, the sale of pesticides was not only motivated by the desire to enhance
crop production by eliminating undesirable organisms in the culture system. Their use was
promoted by chemical manufacturers and the International Monetary Fund through a
program called the "Green Revolution" of the sixties (Agenda 21-Indonesia, 1997).
Consequently, government provided subsidies to buy pesticides. Worse, the pesticides
made available in the region were those that were banned in the countries where they were
manufactured because of their broad spectrum effects, e.g. DDT and chlordane. Today,
there is no reason or incentive to duplicate this mistake region-wide.
3.3.4 Industrial waste
Table 3.51 Industrial waste discharges from coastal and non-coastal installations
South China Sea
BOD
N
P
Heavy Metals
Suspended
regions-Country
(t/y)
(t/y)
(t/y)
(t/y)
solids
(t/y)
Cambodia
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
China
10,345
370
17
25.4
17,304
Indonesia
25,992
No data
No data
No data
No data
Malaysia
426.4
>1,000
No data
No data
1,369
Philippines
>49,000
No data
No data
No data
No data
Thailand
>340,000
>400
No data
No data
No data
Viet Nam
>>4,500
Data given as
96,560
>13,000
wastewater volume
Total
>430,000
>1,800
No basis

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Considering the incomplete data base, industries release a minimum of about
430,000 tons of BOD into aquatic systems interacting with the South China Sea (Table
3.51). Eighty percent of the reported value comes from Thailand, of which 50% is conveyed
by the river systems of Chao Phraya, Ta Chin, Mae Klong, and Bang Pakong.
Data provided on heavy metals are incomplete. Viet Nam whose major rivers are all
transboundary, reports an annual load of at least 96,560 tons/year, 96 times more than
Japan disposed of in 1988 (Table 3.52). Around 80% of this load come from the Dong Nai-
Saigon River. In contrast, China reports the release of only 25 t/y. Metal specific data should
bear out whether limits have already been exceeded. Viet Nam indicates in its national
report that in the Northern Economic Zone, the amounts of Pb, Zn, and Cu are 7-10 times
the allowable limits.
Table 3.52 Estimated disposal of toxic substances (106 t) (Source: State of the
Environment in Asia and the Pacific, Economic and Social Commission for the Asia-Pacific,
1995 as cited in Agenda 21-Indonesia, 1997)
Country,
Estimated
Toxic to
Toxic to
Toxic levels
Year disposed
production of
humans
aquatic
of heavy
hazardous
organisms
metals
waste
(106 t/yr)1
Japan, 1988
0.82
13,715
15,877
1,034
China, 1987
50
3,226
4,098
155
Indonesia, 1986
5
195
247
7
Malaysia, 1987
0.4
181
217
9
Philippines, 1987
0.08-0.15
118
143
7
Thailand, 1986
0.88
137
167
6
1Hernandez, (1993).
Aside from pesticides and heavy metals, hazardous and toxic pollutants include paint
and color agents, organic solvents, and other byproducts of industrial manufacturing or
processing. Hazardous wastes are products having one or more of the following features:
explosive, inflammable, reactive, disease-causing, corrosive, and/ or toxic (based on
toxicological tests) (Agenda 21-Indonesia, 1997). Hernandez, (1993) estimated production
rates of hazardous waste for a number of South China Sea countries (Table 3.52). The data
in this table are estimates derived from various sources, with some as current as 1993 and
others pertaining to the late 80s. As the same definition of hazardous waste has not been
used in all cases, the information is not comparable between countries and should be used
only as a crude estimate. There is a need to monitor the production and disposal of
hazardous waste and strategically to control these wastes at the source end by advocating
the use of cleaner technologies.
3.3.5 Sediments
In aquatic systems, total suspended solids include sediments brought about by
erosion of soil material as a result of mining, agriculture, forest clearance, coastal
development including land reclamation, and natural processes. Sediments are a major
pollutant in coastal waters they have immediate observable impacts including the smothering
of coral reefs, and burial of macrophytes like seagrasses and seaweeds. However, very little
quantitative data is available in terms of actual sediment load that has entered aquatic
systems in the region, and little was obtained from the national reports. Rates of shoaling

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can be used as indicators of sediment deposition, but, these represent net accumulation of
both man-induced and naturally-caused particle movements.
Table 3.53 Land clearance in selected countries (Agenda 21-Indonesia, 1997)
Country
Land area
Forest area (% of land)
Clearance
Annual
Annual
(103 km2)
rate with
roundwoo
average
reforestation
d
reforestatio
(km2/y)
productio
n
n (103 m3)
(km2)
Year
1989
1981
1986
1989
1985-87
1980's
US
9,167
31.0
28.9
28.3
13,189
485,760
17,750
Germany
244
30.0
30.0
29.5
No clearance
31,583
620
Australia
7,618
13.9
13.9
13.5
3,189
19,907
620
UK
242
No data
9.0
5.7
2,181
5,082
400
France
550
No data
26.6
26.6
No clearance
39,890
510
Malaysia
329
66.0
60.0
57.8
3,122
32,000
250
Indonesia
1,812
75.0
72.5
60.0
32,335
158,075
1,640
Philippines
298
31.0
24.5
21.5
2,516
35,822
630
Thailand
511
47.0
35.0
28.0
11,826
36,900
310
Data from Table 3.53 can be used as a proxy for tree felling in determining the extent
of sedimentation as a function of land clearance. Indonesia topped the list at a clearance
rate of over 32,000 km2 of forest/yr to produce 158 million m3 of roundwood. Thailand came
second in the region with a rate of almost 12,000 km2/y from 1981 to 1989 to produce 37
million m3 of round wood. If the slopes of the cleared area are given, an index of erosion can
be made, to estimate the amount of sediments that can be moved. Given the data above,
sediment loads from cleared land in Indonesia would have contributed the most sediment,
followed by Thailand, Malaysia and the Philippines.
A similar exercise can be done for the mining sector and for land reclamation
projects. Both activities produce a large amount of sediment that is transported by rivers in
the case of mining, or dumped directly in to coastal waters as filling. The Baguio Mining
district, during its peak operations in the 1980's, produced at least 11 million tons of
tailings/year that were conveyed by two river systems draining into the Lingayen Gulf
(Maaliw, 1990).
Dredging of silted navigation channels can also indicate the massive amounts of
sediments brought to aquatic environments. In the Mahakam River Delta, around 2 million
m3 of sediments were dredged to maintain navigation channels, which presumably were
silted by erosion caused by massive logging in the interior of Kalimantan (Hinrichsen, 1998).
The responses of flora to reduced light intensities in turbid coastal waters are
variable. Under natural processes of erosion, silt load is trapped by mangrove roots in
estuarine waters, and then bound by the rhizomes of seagrasses, as they approach the coral
reefs. During massive sediment loads, these natural sediment filters break down. For filter
feeders like coral polyps, suffocation leads to death as particle removal through tentacular
movement is greatly restrained under high silt load. For seagrasses and seaweeds, a
reduction in light regimes leads to their demise, and reduced productivities of those plants
which can normally deal with relatively higher concentrations of silt and high nutrient regimes
of coastal waters. Thus, there is a loss both of biodiversity and productivity of benthic
macroflora. In the case of phytoplankton, the massive silt load may not necessarily lead to

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reduced photosynthesis because cells are suspended in the water column, and shading may
be episodic as they are mixed in all directions. The high amount of nutrients associated
sometimes with high sediment loads sustains high production. Thus, algal blooms very often
are initiated in coastal areas, specifically in embayments.
Reduction of anthropogenic activities which exacerbate erosion, and less disposal of
sediments into coastal waters, including reclamation, should be carried out. With population
growth and industrialization, there is increasing pressure to provide clear land for housing
and infrastructure development in support of industries, and food production. These are
clearly political decisions but must be made with minimal negative consequences to the
natural resource base on land and in the sea.
3.3.6 Solid wastes
Solid wastes are generated by domestic and industrial activities. There are no
reported values in the TDA national reports coming from industries. Table 3.54 compares
estimates of reported solid wastes generated by domestic activities and those estimated
using a value of 0.6 kg/person/day (Economopoulous 1993). The discrepancies could be in
the conversion factor used, as well as in the population estimates. Koe and Aziz, (1995)
estimated daily per capita generation of solid waste to range from 0.4 kg in Indonesia to 2.00
in Singapore, the amount increasing with affluence. Using the percent disposal at authorized
sites in 1989, the amount disposed in non-authorised locations including rivers and coastal
waters would be at least 68% of domestic solid waste production for the entire region. When
solid wastes reach aquatic systems, they smother predators, and reduce the aesthetic value
of beach and underwater sceneries for coastal tourism.
Although the composition of solid waste from domestic sources is mostly organics
(putrescible) and paper, their decomposition rates are slow, and others are not
biodegradable such are plastics, metals and glass (Table 3.55). Proper solid waste disposal
is a major problem in highly populated areas such as in cities. Landfills when not properly
maintained can produce toxic leachates which can seep into groundwater, or aggregate
hazardous materials that can impair public safety. In Metro Manila, some landfills have
become methanogenic (hence the name Smoky Mountain for a landfill located in a suburb
of Metro Manila in Navotas) causing severe respiratory illnesses among residents in
surrounding areas.

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Table 3.54 Solid waste from domestic sources (based on TDA national reports)
Country
Population of
Estimated solid
Reported values
Percent
South China Sea
waste
of solid waste
disposal at
subregions
(103 t/y)
from domestic
authorized
X 103
(at 0.6
sources
disposal sites
(% of national)
kg/person/day)
(103 t/y)
(1989)1
Cambodia
1,985
435
560
No data
(18%)
China
59,694
13,073
No data
No data
(5%)
Indonesia
105,217
23,042
22,899
60%
(50%)
Malaysia
10,336
2,264
1,924
65%
(51%)
Philippines
23,633
5,176
1,330
70%
(31%)
Thailand
37,142
6,134
482
40%
(62%)
Viet Nam
75,124
16,452
No data
No data
(100%)
Total
313,131
66,576
(19%)
2005
359,837
78,804
1data from Koe and Aziz, 1995.
Table 3.55 Components of solid waste (Koe and Aziz, 1995)
Country
Solid waste compositon (%) in some South China Sea countries
Paper
Glass
Metals
Plastics Organic
Others
s
Brunei
26
6
11
13
41
3
Indonesia
2
1
4
3
87
3
Malaysia
25
3
6
8
56
2
Philippines
10
2
3
9
70
6
Singapore
28
4
5
12
44
7
Thailand
19
6
4
10
55
6
3.3.7 Oil and other hydrocarbons from land and sea-based sources
Table 3.56 Extent of oil pollution in the TDA participating countries (data from national TDA
reports. For Indo, Phil. & Thai. assume 1L oil weighs 1kg)
Country
Sources
Domestic sources Industrial Sources
Ship-based/
(t/y)
(t/y)
Platform
operations
(t/y)
Cambodia
No data
No data
No data
China
No data
187.00
>300
Indonesia
No data
No data
32.8
Malaysia
No data
0.52
No data
Philippines
No data
No data
0.86
Thailand
No data
No data
> .01
Viet Nam
2,132
No data
>4,280

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Figure 6.
Pollution "Hot Spots" in the South China Sea. Numbers correspond to

location listed in Table 2.3.

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The data in Table 3.56 is not sufficient to establish the relative importance of each of
the major sources of oil and other hydrocarbons in the aquatic environment. For lack of
regionally based data, the following estimates (GESAMP, 1993) for the global ocean may
hold true for the South China Sea (Table 3.57).
Table 3.57 Relative contribution of different sources to oil pollution
Sources
Inputs (t/y) (% contribution)
1. Municipal and industrial sources
1,175,000 (50%)
2. Marine transportation
564,000 (24%)
3. Atmosphere
305,500 (13%)
4. Natural sources
258,500 (11%)
5. Offshore production
47,000 (2%)
The relative contribution of various sources of oil will vary depending on factors
including population density, extent of shipping, mineral exploration, and the degree of
industrialization of littoral countries. In the South China Sea, all factors are intensifying so
that absolute oil inputs will increase from at least three sources (Table 3.57). The average
annual growth rate for oil demand in five of the seven TDA participating countries is
projected to be 5% for the period 1993 to 2005.
Table 3.58 Oil demand by selected countries (103 barrels/day) (GEF/UNDP/IMO 1997)
Country
1993
2000
2005
Average annual growth
for, 1993-2005 (%)
China
2,743
4,031
5,001
5.1
Indonesia
756
1,170
1,556
6.2
Malaysia
290
414
522
5.0
Thailand
517
839
1,096
6.5
Philippines
253
367
466
5.2
Japan
4,822
5,086
5,188
0.6
South Korea
1,552
2,217
2,740
4.8
Asia-Pacific
14,197
18,469
21,630
3.6
GESAMP (1993) summarizes the salient effects of oil on a number of marine
organisms. Birds coated with oil during major spills have high mortality rates, but their long-
term impacts on populations across generations are difficult to establish. High
concentrations of oil in critical areas, including spawning and recruitment grounds, have an
impact on the viability of populations including reducing the number of potentially
reproducing adults. Mangroves are very susceptible to stress by oil because of the clogging
of their aerial roots or pneumatophores. As a consequence, they suffer from partial or full
defoliation, and may take as long as 20 years to recover. For corals, species accommodate
oil contamination along a gradient of tolerance and the associated biota of coral reefs is
impacted adversely, especially the young life stages of crustaceans and echinoderms. The
water-soluble fractions of oil are the most lethal components. Tainting of food species has
yet to be established. It is evident that oil interferes with lipid metabolism but the components
of oil residuals and the substances that bind on organisms are unknown, much less their
potential impacts on man.

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Figure 7.
Total nitrogen loading in sub-divisions in the South China Sea.

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3.3.8 Atmospheric sources
Emissions from power generation, industries and transportation contribute greatly to
airborne pollution. By far, the most significant contributor is the power sector (Agenda 21-
Indonesia, 1997). Fuel used for power generation includes fuel and diesel oil, coal and
natural gas. Oil and coal are the most common fuels used in South China Sea countries
(Table 3.58). The most pollutive of all fuels is coal in increasing intensity as its quality
decreases. Most countries opt to use low-grade coal to produce cheaper energy, but the
environmental impacts and effects on human health are most severe. The use of cleaner,
albeit more expensive, fuel is in fact cheaper than lower quality fuel with its associated costs
for the appropriate treatment of noxious emissions and human illnesses, even in the short
term (Agenda 21 ­ Indonesia, 1997).
In urban areas, transportation is responsible for the release of most air pollutants.
The number of vehicles will most likely increase to meet the transportation demands of a
growing population. Considering only South China Sea-related subregions, Thailand has the
most number of vehicles, followed by Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. China and
Viet Nam, with their increasing involvement in free trade, will spur the growth of the transport
industry. In Jakarta, transportation accounts for 100% of lead, 42% of suspended particulate
matter, 89% of hydrocarbons, 64% of nitrous oxides and 100% of carbon monoxide (Agenda
21-Indonesia, 1997). The profile may not be very different for other cities in South China Sea
countries.
Sulphorus and nitrous oxides have profound impacts on human respiratory systems.
When hydrated by precipitation, these ions form acid rain, a phenomenon that has
considerably altered aquatic and terrestial systems in the Northern Hemisphere. The long-
range transport of atmospheric pollutants is of transboundary and global concern.
Indonesian subregions interacting with the South China Sea are rained on with 1.2 million
tons/yr of sulphate. In Thailand and over a smaller area in its central and eastern sections,
about 350,000 tons of sulphate goes back to the watershed annually (Table 3.59). Air shed-
scale studies are needed to elucidate the transboundary dynamics and transport of acid
precipitation in the South China Sea region during normal and anomalous climatological
conditions.
Table 3.59 Atmospheric pollution in TDA participating countries.
(Data from National TDA Reports)
Country
Oil
Coal
Number of
Forest fires
Volcanic
consumptio
consumptio
vehicles
(affected
eruptions
n ( 103 t/y)
n
(103 units)
area, ha)
(in the last
(103 t/y)
50 years)
Cambodia
1,089
No data
No data
No data
No data
China-South
13,094
62,641
2,260
No data
No data
China Sea
Indonesia-South
No data
No data
8,951
No data
China Sea
33,580
No data
14,886
263,992 ha
7 eruptions
Indonesia -Nat
in 1997
Malaysia-South
No data
No data
2,725
No data
No data
China Sea
Continued Table 3.59
Country
Oil
Coal
Number of
Forest fires
Volcanic

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consumptio
consumptio
vehicles
(affected
eruptions
n ( 103 t/y)
n
(103 units)
area, ha)
(in the last
(103 t/y)
50 years)
Philippines-
10.25 X 106
118.05 X
2,062
2,851 ha in
2 eruptions
South China
barrels
106 barrels
1997
Sea
Thailand-South
No data
No data
11,050
No data
China Sea
Viet Nam
No data
No data
No data
Table 3.60 Composition of precipitation in Indonesia and Thailand
(Data from National TDA Reports)
Indonesia-South
Rainfall
Area
SO4
H+
NH4
China Sea
(mm)
(km2)
(t/y)
(moles/yr)
Riau-Batam
1,719
94,561
185,729
307,022
172,493
Bangka-Belitung
1,868
103,688
132,322
313,350
141,605
and South Sumatra
West Java
858
46,890
155,195
139,489
6,486
East Java
941
47,921
251,294
165,861
25,096
S. Kalimantan
1,644
37,660
196,096
313,823
41,256
W. Kalimantan
2,550
146,760
278,103
437,593
91,303
Subtotal
1,198,739
1,677,138
478,239
Thailand-South
China Sea
Central
1,304
64,044
67,802
42,919
4,927
Eastern
2,142
36,502
286,681
146,781
21,740
Subtotal
354,483
189,700
26,667
3.3.9 River systems
Table 3.61 shows fluxes from rivers in the seven TDA participating countries. Fluxes,
obtained by multiplying average concentrations with annual discharge rates, indicate the
amount of material conveyed by river systems to the sea, as a combination of load from all
sources (agricultural, domestic and industrial). Concentrations at discharge points, are a net
result after uptake by organisms, adsorption to particles, and chemical speciation have
proceeded, among others. They indicate in what concentrations pollutants finally enter the
coastal waters of the South China Sea. Excluding the archipelagic countries where either
appropriate data is wanting or wrongly estimated, rough estimates of the total for the five
continental countries are indicated. Rivers in Cambodia, China, Malaysia, Thailand and Viet
Nam deliver at least 636, 840 tons of nitrogen to coastal waters overlying the Sunda Shelf.
Of these, China contributes at least 55%, since they only reported inorganic N. Viet Nam
(NO3-N) and Thailand (DIN), contributed 21 and 20%, resp.
Table 3.61 Pollutant fluxes from rivers of TDA participating countries
to the South China Sea
Country/River
Catchment
Annual
BOD
Total N
Total P
TSS
Oil
Area (km2)
discharge
(t/y)
(IN)
(IP)
(t/y)
(t/y)
(km3)
(t/y)
(t/y)
Cambodia
Tonle Sap Lake-
69,355
36.45
6,022
1,084
303
13,250
No data

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River System
Coastal rivers
13,406
21.79
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
Mekong River,
72,060
128.38
4964
894
255
10,950
No data
Cambodia section
China
Guangdong:
488,802
422.20
566,385
(340,050)
(3,768)
58,531,000
9,698
Han, Rong, Pearl,
Moyang, Jian
Quangxi:
14,051
24.90
57,668
(8,602)
(507)
No data
823
Nanliu, Qing,
Maoling
Hainan:
15,865
31.0
140
No data
No data
No data
368
Nandu, Changhua,
Wanquanhe
Indonesia
Rivers in Jakarta
14,241
30.7
7,778,716
1,015,013
No data
22,368,391
1,549,979
and West Java
Malaysia
Ammonia-N
54 rivers
231,000
No data
>81,500
>20,100
No data
>75,000
1
Philippines
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
Thailand
DIN
Central, Eastern,
320,553
144.2
299,224
130,044
7,137
12,587
No data
Southern rivers
Viet Nam
NO3-N
PO4
1,316,701
942.0
135,374
46,232
Cu
Pb
Cd
Zn
Hg
Thai Binh
28,230
46.26
3,942.2
154.3
163.9
3,352.0
16.5
Red
298,050
200.00
2,817.0
730.0
118.0
2,015.0
11.0
Dong Nai-Sai Gon
47,280
50.50
No data
102.2
No data
77,015.0
25.6
Mekong
830,780
573.10
1,825
190
128.0
1,278.0
<13.0
BOD
Total N
Total P
Total TSS
Total Oil
>Total South
1,000,000
637,000
58,000
58,600,000
China Sea for
continental
countries
In general, river systems in the TDA participating countries, with the exception of
Cambodia and Malaysia are moderate to heavily polluted using standard water quality
parameters (Table 3.62). This is especially evident in rivers running through thickly
populated areas such as in cities of China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam.
The mouths of these rivers are pollution hot spots, and mitigation at the source end from
both point and diffuse sources will have to be dealt with.

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Table 3.62 Status of river systems in TDA participating countries
Country
Status of River Systems
Cambodia
Mekong River (Cambodia segment): OK
Tonle Sap Lake-River system: moderate eutrophication during dry
season
China
Pearl River: discharges 87% of the total COD coming from
Guangdong Province; a pollution hot spot
Indonesia
Majority of the rivers on the island of Java empyting into the South
China Sea are moderate to heavily polluted.
Malaysia
None of the rivers empyting to the South China Sea are classified as
being heavily polluted from agro-based and manufacturing-based
industry.
Philippines
Pasig River: Biologically dead
Rivers draining into Lingayen Gulf: moderately polluted, but may
have heavy metal contamination from the Baguio mining district.
Thailand
The final 100 km of the Lower Chao Phraya, Petchburi,
Bangpakong, Rayong river systems emptying into thre Gulf of
Thailand are pollution "hot spots". They convey 50% of total
pollution to the Gulf.
Viet Nam
Six river systems (Ky Cung-Bang Gang, Red, Ma, Ca, Dong Nai,
Mekong) are transboundary; Red, Dong Nai-Sai Gon, Mekong and
Thai Binh Rivers have exceeded allowable limits for heavy metals
like Hg and As.
3.3.10 Pollution hot spots, high-risk and sensitive areas
The TDA national reports identified 35 pollution hotspots (Table 3.63 and figure 6)
and 26 sensitive and high-risk areas (Table 3.64) in sub-regions interacting with the South
China Sea. Pollution loads on aquatic environments are influenced by population distribution
and growth, industrial and agricultural development inland as far as catchments extend. The
hot spots represent priority areas for monitoring and mitigation since they are places where
pollutant load is most concentrated and will have the most impact on natural systems and
public health. High risk and sensitive areas indicate locations which need the most protection
from continued pollutant loading considering their limited assimilative capacities, their high
biodiversity and the key ecological support function they provide. Previous sections on
habitat modification have noted that virtually all coastal habitats (mangroves, corals and
seagrasses) as well as natural wetlands in the region are sensitive areas and are at high
risk. From a regional perspective, the locations of all the identified key areas relative to one
another considering circulation regimes and prospective development, are necessary
information in inferring the transboundary features of issues related to pollution.

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Table 3.63 Pollution hot spots in TDA participating countries (National Reports)
Location
Demography/ Contributing cities
Pollution load
or subregions
Cambodia
1. Phnom Penh City
1,100,000 (1997)
BOD: 20,075 t/y
TSS: 44,165 t/y
COD: 34,130 t/y
Total N: 3,285 t/y
Total P: 1,000 t/y
China
2. Han River
Shantou
COD: 37,102 t/y
Oil: 384 t/y
IN: 4,296 t/y
IP: 697 t/y
3. Pearl Estuary
Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Dongguan,
COD, nutrients, SS
Guangzhou, Zhuhai, Macau
4. Zhanjiang Bay
Zhanjiang
COD: 11,691 t/y
N: 840 t/y
Oil: 190 t/y
5. Behai coastal waters
Behai City
COD, nutrients, SS
6. Haikou coastal
Haikou
COD, nutrients, SS
waters
Indonesia
7. Dumai River
Riau ­Batam
BOD: 17.7 ­ 48 mg/l
8. Pulau Nipah
Riau-Batam
9. Siburik River
Bangka-Belitum and S. Sumatera
NO3: 1.38 ­ 2.14
10. Lahat River
Same
BOD: 3 ­ 35 mg/l
11. Tanjung Pandan
Same
Cd: 0.005 ­ 0.017 mg/l
12. Palembang Harbour
Same
BOD: 4 ­78 mg mg /l
13. Japat River
Jakarta
BOD: 13.5 ­ 15.0 mg/l
14. Jakarta Bay
Jakarta
Hg: 0.132 ­ 0.200 ug/l
15. Kali Mas River
West Java
BOD: 15.6 ­ 47.0 mg/l
16. Strait of Madura
West Java
BOD: 48 ­ 91 mg/l
Phenol: 0.05 ­ 1 mg/l
17. Pulau Laut
S. Kalimantan
NO2-N: 0.03 mg/l
18. Pontianak Harbour
W. Kalimantan
BOD: 135 ­ 150 mg/l
Malaysia
19. Kota Bharu
257,792 (population); 0% access to
BOD generated: 4,705 t/y
sewerage
20. Kuala Terengganu
268,294; 8.6% access
BOD generated: 4,477 t/y
21. Kuantan
238,738; 24% access
BOD generated: 3,230 t/y
22. Kuching
497,000; no data
BOD generated: 9,070 t/y
23. Kota Kinabalu
271,000; no data
BOD generated: 4,946 t/y

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Continued Table 3.63
Location
Demography/ Contributing cities
Pollution load
or subregions
Philippines
24. Manila Bay
Metropolitan Manila and
BOD: 4.8 mg/l
CALABARZON industrial estate
Coliform: 2.5 x 105 ppm
25. Subic Bay
Zambales specifically Subic Port
BOD: 160-234 mg/l
and industrial estate
Coliform: 1,888 MPN/100 ml
26. Batangas Bay
Batangas City, oil refineries and
BOD: 8,838 t/yr from livestock
depots
Oil: 1,233 m3 spilled from 1986-
1993
Thailand
27. Lower Chao
Water Quality Index Level 5
Phraya River
28. Pasak River
Same
29. Petchburi River
Same
30. Bangpakong River
Same
31. Rayong River
Same
32. Songkhla Lagoon
Same
Viet Nam
33. Ha Long Bay
Open pit coal mining, oil depots,
4 x 106 t of coal mine sludge/y
port operations
34. Hai Phong Port
Population of 564,200; 9,891
BOD: 3,235 t/y
industrial firms, 3.5 x 106 ton port.
COD: 4,331 t/y
Coliform: 1,500 MPN/ 100 ml
35. Da Nang Port
Population of 667,200; 767
COD: 3,236 t/y
industrial firms, 3 oil ports
TN: 6,601 t/y
TP: 62.4 t/y
TSS: 194,316 t/y
Coliform: 5-270 x 103 MPN/100
ml
36. Vung Tau- Ganh
154,505 population; 2,622,000
Ganh Rai Bay
Rai
tourists/y (1995)
BOD: 4-11 mg/l
SS: 150-260 mg/l
TN: 0.2 - 0.5 mg/l
TP: 0.02 ­ 0.05 mg/l
Oil: 0.15 ­ 0.25 mg/l
Zn: 0.02 ­ 0.04 mg/l

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Table 3.64 Areas at high risk (HR) and sensitive (S) to pollution in the TDA participating
countries (national reports)
Location
Pressures/ Sensitive
Pollution risks
resources
Cambodia
1. Sihanouk Ville ­ HR
55,440 population; 20
BOD: 1,011 t/y
factories; port capacity of 1.2
COD: 1,720 t/y
x 106 tons
TSS: 2,226 t/y
2. Tonle Sap Lake ­ S
Urban centers of Kompong
Biodiversity and productivity
Chnang, Pursat,
of the largest permanent
Battambang, Siem Reap,
freshwater lake in Southeast
Kompong Thom
Asia: part of the
transboundary Mekong River
Basin
China
3. Daya Bay, Huizhou City
Pollution from Daya Bay; oil
­ HR
spills from oil terminal
4. Shuidong Port, Maoming
Oil spills from oil terminal
City ­ HR
5. Coastal waters of Sanya
Pollution from rivers, Sanya
City ­ HR
City population, coastal
industries
6. Yangpu Bay - HR
Industrial pollution
7. Green Turtle Preserve,
Green turtle
Near river mouths; with high
Huidong Port - S
social and natural value
8. Aquatic Resource
Aquatic resources
Same
Preserve, Daya Bay ­ S
9. Futian Natural Preserve ­
Aquatic resources
Same
Deep Bay ­ S
10. Haikang Preserve at
White butterfly shellfish
Same
Leizhou Bay ­ S
11. Dugong Preseve,
Dugong
Same
Tieshan Port Bay ­ S
12. Shankou Mangrove
Mangroves
Same
Preserve, Tieshan Port
Bay ­ S
13. Behai Beach - S
Natural landscape
Same
14. Mangrove Reserve,
Mangroves
Same
Beilun River mouth ­ S
15. Mangrove Reserve,
Mangroves
Same
Dongzai Port ­ S
16. Haikou City Beach - S
Natural landscape
Same
Indonesia
17. Degraded areas in Java,
No data given
No data given
Sumatera,
W. Kalimantan
Malaysia ­ No locations given

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Continued Table 3.64
Location
Pressures/ Sensitive
Pollution risks
resources
Philippines
18. Masinloc Bay ­ HR
Red tide occurences
19. Bacuit Bay, Palawan ­
Offshore oil and gas
S, HR
development
20.Oceanic shoals ­ S
Marine protected areas for
Shipping and oil spills
marine turtles and sea birds
21. Apo Reef, Mindoro
Marine protected areas for
Shipping and oil spills
Strait ­ S
coral reefs
Thailand
22. Head of Upper Gulf ­
Receives polluted water from
HR
4 rivers; Limited exchange
between near and offshore
waters; Bangkok Bar
Channel isa navigational
hazard
23. Ban Don Bay ­ S
Shellfish culture, coral reefs
Loading from Tapipum
and seagrass communities;
Duong river
spawning grounds of Indo-
Pacific mackerel
24. Rayong ­ S, HR
Coral reefs and seagrasses
Petrochemical industries; oil
spills
25. Songkhla Lagoon ­ HR
Contaminated brackish
waters with high BOD and
coliform bacteria
Viet Nam
26. Red River Delta ­ HR, S
Mangroves, shrimp and fish
Red River:
grounds, shore birds
Cu: 5.7 ­ 19.2 ug/l
Hg: 0.02 ­ 0.25 ug/l
As: 6.5 ­ 20.4 ug/l
Zn: 22.8 ­ 53.3 ug/l
27. Mekong Delta ­ HR, S
Mangroves, shrimps and fish
grounds
3.3.11 Transboundary issues associated with pollution
Transboundary transport of pollutants occurs through international rivers, following
circulation along the shared Sunda Shelf, and through the atmosphere. Economic activities
like coastal tourism and the trade of waste are anthropogenic agents of pollution transport
across national boundaries. The quality of this information is generally poor (Table 3.65).

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Table 3.65 Transboundary issues associated with pollution in TDA participating countries
Transboundary Issue ­
Ca
Ch
In
Ma
Ph
Th
Vi
Quality of Information
1. Pollution of transboundary rivers
· Mekong River ­ Poor to Fair
ü
ü
ü
ü
· Red River ­ Fair (Viet Nam)
ü
ü
· Sai Gon-Dong Nai­Fair (Viet Nam)
ü
ü
2. Transport of polluted coastal
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
waters along the Sunda Shelf­Poor
3. Haze from forest fires ­ Poor
ü
ü
ü
4. Acid precipitation ­ Poor
ü
ü
ü
5. Transport of waste for trade and
No
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
No
recyling ­ Poor
data
data
6. Coastal tourism ­ Fair
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
Pollution of international rivers. Six countries, four of which are TDA participants,
share the Mekong River. China, specifically the Yunnan Province, sits at the source of the
Mekong, while Thailand, Cambodia and Viet Nam are mid- and downstream of the river flow
before it empties to the South China Sea through the Mekong River Delta. Two pollutants
have transboundary impacts on the river basin. These are organochlorines and sediments.
The data base for the presence of organochlorines is limited but is listed by the Mekong
River Commission (1997), because of the rapidly expanding use of persistent organic
pollutants (POPs) in the agricultural sector. All MRB countries contribute to sediment load. In
Cambodia, the merging point of the Tonle Sap River with the Mekong has high TSS loads.
The same is true for where the Bassac River joins the Mekong in Viet Nam. Poor land use
management in the Yunnan highlands with an average slope of 32.3%, has caused
significant erosion in 29% of the basin of the Lancang River (Mekong River) within China
(Tables 3.66 and 3.67).
Table 3.66 Sharing of Mekong River Basin water resources
(Mekong River Commission, 1997)
Resource
Yunnan,
Mya
Lao
Tha
Cam
Vie
MRB
Chi
Catchment area (km2)
147,000
24,000
202,000
184,000
155,000
65,000
777,000
Catchment area as %
38%
4%
97%
36%
86%
20%
--
of nation/province
Catchment area of %
22%
3%
25%
23%
19%
8%
100%
of total MRB
Annual flow (106 m3)
76,500
475,000
Average flow (m3 /s)
2,410
300
5,270
2,560
2,860
1,660
15,060
from area
Average flow as % of
16
2
35
18
18
11
100
total MRB

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Table 3.67 Water quality assessment of the Mekong River Basin
(Mekong River Commission, 1997, National reports)
Factor
Severity
Spatial scale
Occurrence/ Remarks
Eutrophication
Moderate-
local
Development areas
severe
High N conc: Chiang Saen, Ban
Kok, Yasothon, Ubon, My Tho
High P conc: Vientiane, Ban Kok,
Luang Prabang, My Tho
Organic
Severe-
local
Development areas
pollution
moderate
Salinity
Very severe
local
Korat Plateau (evaporite rock salt)
Salt water intrusion in Delta
Toxic metals
moderate
local
Limited data
Severe in mining areas of western
Cambodia; Severe in Viet Nam
Microbial
moderate
local
Development areas
pollution
Acidification
severe
local
Delta
Organochlorines moderate
regional
Limited data
Sediment yields
Moderate-
regional
Higher upstream and in wet
severe
season
Six of the 10 major river systems in Viet Nam are transboundary in extent (Table
3.68). Of these, four are severely polluted with BOD, nutrients, sediments and toxic heavy
metals. Because they are shared water resources, pollution management will have to be
pursued by user countries, with due consideration that impacts are felt downstream. All
resource users should equitably and effectively control pollution and prevent further
degradation.
Table 3.68 Transboundary river systems in Viet Nam
(ESCAP, 1995, Viet Nam National Report)
River system
Catchment
River flow volume (km3/y)
Status
area
From outside
Total
(km2)
(% of total)
Red-Thai Binh
168,700
44.12 (19)
137.00 Severe heavy
metal pollution
Bang ­ Ky Kung
12,880
1.70 (32)
8.92 No data
Ma-Chu
28,400
4.34 (22)
20.10 No data
Ca
272,000
4.74 (20)
24.20 No data
Dong Nai
42,665
1.41 (5)
30.60 Severe heavy
metal pollution
Mekong
795,000
500.00 (96)
520.60 Severe heavy
metal pollution

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Transport along the Sunda Shelf. China, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia,
and to a small extent Indonesia, share the Sunda Shelf. Few studies show the possibility of
long-shore transport of pollutants across national boundaries. The Viet Namese report
indicates that transport of pollutants from its northern pollution hot spots (Red-Thai Binh river
mouths, Ha Long City, Hai Phong Port) can influence Hai Nan coastal waters and those
along the coast of Quang Chau. Hot spots located south (Sai Gon-Dong Nai River, Mekong
River, Vung Tao) can impact the waters of Cambodia, Thailand and Malaysia. Furthermore,
oil spills in the Gulf of Tonkin, and along the South Viet Nam shelf can reach China to the
north, or Cambodia, Thailand and Malaysia to the south, depending on the prevailing
monsoon. (Viet Nam TDA National Report)
Jacinto et al., (1997) discussed the use of nutrients as tracers of water masses in
explaining both the horizontal and vertical nutrient profiles across a cruise track between the
Philippines and Viet Nam. Nutrient concentrations were higher in stations nearer the Viet
Nam shelf (average values of 2 µM for nitrate, 0.35 µM for nitrite, 1.8 µM for ammonia, and
0.70 µM for phosphate in the top 50 m), and within higher temperature and lower salinity
regimes compared to adjacent stations. These could indicate runoff water, with the boundary
current flowing south along Viet Nam interacting with waters from rivers flowing out of Viet
Nam and Thailand.
Long-range atmospheric transport. Forest and grass fires occurred in Indonesia and
the Philippines in 1998 at the height of the warm phase of the ENSO. In both countries,
forest fires resulted from land clearing for estate plantations, transmigration and animal
ranching; spontaneous combustion of coal seams, and those caused by lightning and
volcanic eruptions (Agenda 21-Indonesia, 1997). The extent of the fires was significant
enough to cause smoke to spread over Palawan, western Philippines, Peninsular Malaysia
and Singapore.
Transport of other pollutants along air sheds may not be as visible as haze or smoke
pollution, but may be more insidious. The long-range transport of sulfur and nitrous oxides
through air masses, leads to transboundary acid precipitation. A report by Canadian
Environmental Collaborative (1993) states that acid precipitation occurs in southern China
(Sichuan and Hunan Provinces) during the summer months, and affects northern Viet Nam
and Laos. During winter, with prevailing winds coming from the southwest, pollutants from
Thailand and the rest of the Indo-China Peninsula could be contributing to acid precipitation
in coastal southern China. The data are sparse, and when available can yield conflicting
models of wind transport. Thus, large scale studies on atmospheric chemistry are a priority
concern in the region.
Illegal Waste trade. Waste is transported from source developed countries for
dumping (at sea) or for disposal and/or recycling in developing countries. Very little
information exists because of the usually illegal nature of waste transport, especially noxious
wastes. Media highlights transport of nuclear fuels or wastes, but other equally dangerous
waste substances seem to be part of the regular trade traffic. Agenda 21-Indonesia (1997)
documents the export of plastic garbage from the US during the months of February-March,
1992 to recipient countries in Asia for recycling (Table 3.68), 73% of which went to China. In
certain instances, the cargo was declared as raw materials. Signatories to the Basel
Convention, which attempts to regulate the trade and disposal of toxic and hazardous
wastes, should be able to address this particular issue, but only if there is strong political will
to counter economic exigencies driving the waste trade. Large quantities of noxious but
unidentified waste was transported from Taiwan of China to Sihanoukville in Cambodia in
1999 but international presure forced Taiwan of China to remove it. (Bangkok Post 16/2/99,
11/4/99, 17/6/99)

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Table 3.69 Transboundary transport of waste for recycling from USA
(February 1 ­ March 31, 1992) (Agenda 21-Indonesia, 1997)
Receiving Country
Shipments
Total kg x 103
China
598
17,410
Indonesia
50
2,251
Japan
5
51
Korea
8
110
Malaysia
7
255
Philippines
58
2,448
Thailand
6
124
Total (including other
749
23,740
countries)
Coastal tourism. (See section on transboundary issues associated with habitat
degradation). Tourism, along the coastal areas of the South China Sea, is dependent on
clean beaches and coral reefs. Tourism has contributed significantly to coastal pollution and
the degradation of corals, mangroves, beaches and seagrasses. The infrastructure
development needed to support coastal tourism and the waste generated by facilities which
crowd prime beach areas are traditionally taken as necessary evils that countries must
accept in generating tourism-based revenues. As the industry increases (see Table 3.19)
these issues must be considered and remediative and environmentally sound management
brought into general practise. Tourism cannot be taken on its own, rather the environmental
and socio-economic effects on a local and regional basis should be taken into consideration.

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Table 3.70 Status of wetlands and associated biodiversity summarized from Scott (1989).
(Note: Strictly, coastal wetlands including saline lagoons and mangrove areas were not included below.)
Country:
Cambodia
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disurbances & threats
Biodiversity
Conservation
Social values
measures
taken
Mekong River:
486 km river; 2 M ha of
Supports one of the
Ø proposed irrigation,
Ø principal tree species in swamp
None
Associated
floodplain which
world's largest
hydroelectric power
forest are Barringtonia acutangula,
freshwater swamp
includes 1.6 M ha of the inland fisheries
projects, flood control
Hydrocarpus anthelmintica,
forests but widely
Mekong Delta
(75,000 to 80,000 t
structures
Terminalia chabula, Homalium
deforested for
for the area from
Ø deforestation and
brevidans, and Amelia asiatica
firewood and
Kratie to
demand for
Ø dry season fish fauna: 54%
agricultural land
Vietnamese border
agricultural land;
Cyprinidae or carps; 19% catfish;
in the 1970s)
Cambodian portion of
8% murrels; & 19% (featherbacks,
Mekong Delta has 1
herring, climbing perch and
M ha under
gouramis, others)
cultivation, almost
Ø endemic fish include migratory
90% of which is for
catfish Pangasianodon gigas
rice
Ø 3 species of dolphins: Irrawaddy
Ø domestic wastes and
dolphin Orcaella brevirostirs,
agricultural runoff
Chinese white dolphin Sotalla
chinensis, Black finless porpoise
Neophocaena phocanoides
Ø wetland mammals: smooth-coated
otter Lutra perspicillata, fishing cat
Felis viverrina

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Cambodia (con't)
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disurbances & threats
Biodiversity
Conservation
Social values
measures
taken
Great Lake and
Ø Lake area in dry
Ø Great lake
Ø clearance of swamp forest
Ø swamp forest as in those
Angkor Wat
Tonle Sap River:
season cover
regulates
for agriculture, firewood
around the Mekong River
National Park
Ø Great Lake,
approx. 300,000
Mekong floods
and fishponds
Ø 38 commercially important
of 10,717 ha
largest
ha; in wet season,
Ø fisheries
Ø siltation resulting from
fish species
established in
permanent
1.1 to 1.3 M ha
exploitation
deforestation
Ø several breeding colonies of
1925 includes
freshwater lake
Ø 1960 estimate of
mostly carried
large waterbirds including
2,000 ha of
in SE Asia
swamp forest was
out by straining
endangered species such as
swamp forest
Ø Great Lake
681,400 ha; 1986
fish during
the milky stork Mycteria
connected to
estimate is 564,000
recession of
cinerea, giant ibis
the Mekong via
ha
floodwaters;
Thaumatibis gigantea,white-
the Tonle Sap
lake commercial
shouldered ibis Pseudibis
River
fish productivity
davisoni, and the eastern
Ø Lake
estimated to be
sarus crane Grus antigone
surrounded by
40-50 kg/ha/yr
sharpii
freshwater
or a total of
Ø mammals include Eld's deer
swamp forest,
36,000 t/yr;
Cervus eldi and Banteng Bos
20-30 km wide,
Ø total annual
javanicus
and which in
fishery
turn are
estimated to be
surrounded by
139,000 t in
a belt of rice
1939-51;
paddies up to
101,700 t in
25 km wide
1956-61;
between 50,000
to 80,000 t in
early 1970s; and
63,000 t in 1984
Ø rice cultivation in
the paddies

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Cambodia (con't):
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disurbances & threats
Biodiversity
Conservation
Social values
measures taken
About 120 km of the
Ø sparsely
Ø civil war with soldiers
Ø tree species include
None
Stung Sen:
Sen River; area of
populated
hunting for game meat
Shorea obtusa,
Ø with large areas of
wetlands unknown
Ø hunting of
Dipterocarpus
seasonally flooded
mammals
obtusifolius, D.
marshes and
tuberculatus, Pentarme
grasslands along
siamensis;
riverbanks;
Ø waterfowl as in the Great
Ø clearance of
Lake-Tonle Sap system
original dipterocarp
Ø Siamese crocodile
forests led to
Crocodylus siamensis
formation of
Ø Grasslands supported
savanna grasslands
herds of Kouprey,
with patches of
Banteng, Gaur, eld's
mixed deciduous
deer, asian elephant and
and dry dipterocarp
wild water buffalo, tiger
forest
and leopard
Stung Kaoh Pao and
Approx. 30,000 ha
No information
No information
Ø Flora mostly mangrove
None
Stung Kep Estuaries:
including 16,000 ha of
forest; evergreen and
A complex of tidal
mangrove forests
deciduous forests of the
channels and creeks,
Cardamome Range
low islands, mangrove
Ø Fauna not known
swamps, tidal mudflats
and coastal lagoons of
the Kaoh Pao and Kep
rivers

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Country:
China
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disturbances
Biodiversity
Conservation
social values
& threats
measures taken
Lufeng Marshes,
Approx.
No information
No information
Ø Mangrove forest with about 20
None
Guangdong Province:
2,000 ha
species
estuarine system with
Ø Important wintering and staging area
fresh to brackish
for migratory shorebirds
lagoons, marshes,
mangrove swamps
and intertidal mudflats
Futien Nature
About 304
Ø Fish and shrimp
Pollution from
Ø Seagrass Halophila on the mudflats
The whole area is
Reserve, Guangdong
ha
ponds along
agricultural and
Ø Mangroves include Kandelia candel,
within the Futien-Nei
Province: mangrove
including
Hau Hoi Wan
domestic waste and
Aegiceras corniculatum, Avicennia
Lingding Provincial
swamps, intertidal
228 ha of
(Deep Bay)
from industrial
marina, Excoecaria agallocha,
Nature Reserve (858
sand flats and
mangroves
Ø Mudflats support
development upstream
Acanthus ilicifolius, Bruguiera
ha) established in 1984:
mudflats along Hau
an important
of the Shenzhen River
gymnorhiza, Sonneratia acida,
Ø Sand extraction,
Hoi Wan and the
oyster fishery
Rhiziphora stylosa, Derris trifoliata;
wood cutting and
Shenzhen River;
mangrove fern Acrostichum aureum
hunting are
contiguous with the
Ø 18 species of lamellibranchs, 10
prohibited
Mai Po Marshes in
gastropod sp.; 7 crustacean species
Ø Existing fish and
Hong Kong
Ø Bennett's water snake Enhydrus
shrimp ponds in
bennetti
use but no new
Bird species include resident herons and
construction is
egrets like Ardeola bacchus, Egretta
allowed
garzetta, Ardea cinerea; wintering
Ø Acacia confusa
waterfowl such as Tachybaptus
trees planted to
ruficollis, Phalacrocorax carbo;
shelter the
ducks including Tadorna tadorna,
mangrove fringe
Anas crecca, A. poecilorhyncha,
Aythya fluigula, Fulica atra; migratory
shorebirds mainly Charadrius
alexandrinus, Calidris alpina and
gulls Larus ridibundus

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China (con't.)
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disturbances
Biodiversity
Conservation
social values
& threats
measures taken
Xi Jiang (Pearl River
475,000 ha
Ø One of China's
Ø Mangrove
Ø Few mangrove patches remain
A tiny nature reserve,
Delta), Guangdong
most important
conversion to fish
Ø Important wintering area for
the Bird Paradise
Province: includes
fishing areas
ponds
Anatidae, and for migratory
Nature Reserve, was
interconnecting river
Ø Delta is heavily
Ø Infrastructure for
shorebirds; nesting species include
established to protect a
channels, low islands,
used for
drainage, and
Nycticorax nycticorax, Ardeola
breeding colony of
riverine marshes,
aquaculture and
reclamation
bacchus, Bubulcus ibis, and Egretta
Nycticorax nycticorax
intertidal mudflats
agriculture
Ø Pollution from
garzetta
agricultural,
industrial and
domestic waste
Ø Hunting of
shorebirds for food
and export
Beijin Gang,
1,500 ha
No information
No information
Ø Mangrove forest
None
Guangdong Province:
Ø Migratory shorebirds
brackish marshes,
mangrove swamps
and intertidal mudflats
Dongzaigang Nature
5,240 ha
Ø Fiheries
Ø Densely populated
Ø Mangrove forest with Bruguiera
Protected area as a
Reserve, Hainan:
Ø Agriculture
Ø Overfishing
gymnorhiza, B. sexangula,
National Mangrove
Small shallow bay with
Rhizophora stylosa, Ceriops tagal,
Protection Area:
intertidal mudflats and
Lumnitzera racemosa, Heritiera
Ø Woodcutting and
mangrove swamps
littoralis, Excoecaria gallocha,
hunting prohibited
Aegiceras corniculatum
Ø Mangrove
Ø Rich fish fauna
restoration
Ø Feeding habitat for waterfowl
programme
including Anas poecilorhyncha,
Ardeola bacchus, Egretta garzetta,
e. intermedia, E. alba

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China (con't)
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disturbances
Biodiversity
Conservation
social values
& threats
measures taken
Qinglan Gang and
5,733 ha
Fisheries
Ø Densely populated
Ø 25 mangrove species
3,733 ha is protected as
Wenchang, Hainan:
Ø Overfishing
Ø breeding area for Ardeidae; wintering
the Qinglan Gang
Consist of brackish
and staging area for migratory
Mangrove Nature
marshes, extensive
shorebirds
Reserve:
mangrove swamps,
Ø no felling allowed
intertidal mudflats,
Ø reforestation
sandy beaches and
program
coral reefs
Yanpu Gang, Hainan:
1,200 ha
Fisheries
Ø Domestic sewage
Ø Mangrove forest
None
Brackish marshes,
from dense
Ø Wintering and staging area for
mangrove swamps,
population
migratory shorebirds
tidal mudflats, sandy
Ø Inland agriculture
beaches and coral
reefs
Tiehshan Gang and
35,000 ha
Fisheries
Ø Domestic sewage
Ø Large tracts of mangrove forests
None
Anpu Gang, border of
from dense
Ø Wintering and staging area for
Guangxi and Guang-
population
migratory shorebirds
dong Provinces: Small
Ø Inland agriculture
estuaries and shallow
bays with intertidal
mudflats, mangrove
forests, sandy beaches
Qingzhou Wan,
36,000 ha
Fisheries
No information
Ø Flora: mangrove and seagrass beds
None
Guangxi Province:
of coastal
Ø Dugong dugon
Large shallow bay
flats and
receiving Qinliang
mangroves
River, several small
; 8,385 ha
bays and estuaries,
of islands
small offshore islands,
extensive intertidal
mudflats and patches
of mangrove forests

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China (con't):
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disturbances
Biodiversity
Conservation
social values
& threats
measures taken
Wetlands in the
Nature
No information
No information
Ø No information on flora
Wetlands protected in
Dayao Shan Nature
reserve:
Ø Breeding area for Shinisaurus
the Dayao Shan Nature
Reserve, Guangxi
14,500 ha;
crocodilurus
Reserve (14,500 ha)
Province: small
Wetland
since 1982.
freshwater lake and
area
marshes, and a fast-
unknown
flowing river and
associated marshes
Dawangling Marshes,
19,200 ha
No information
No information
Ø Riverine marshes and rice paddies
Potected in a Nature
Guangxi Province:
Ø Wintering area for migratory
Reserve establishes in
estensive riverine
waterfowl
1980.
marshes and large
area of rice paddies on
marshy plain
Chengbi He
16,200 ha
No information
No information
Ø No information on flora
Protected in a Nature
Reservoir, Guangxi
Ø Wintering area for migratory
Reserve established in
Province: large water
waterfowl
1980
storage reservoir and
associated marshes
on a tributary of the
Yong Jiang River;
several small islands

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Country:
Indonesia
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disturbances
Biodiversity
Conservation
social values
& threats
measures taken
Ogan-Komering Lebaks, South
200,000 ha
No information
Reclamation for
Ø No information on flora
None
Sumatra:
agriculture resulting in
Ø Rich in waterbirds including
Freshwater swamps and
deforestation
the endangered white-winged
marshes along the Ogan and
wood duck Cairina scutulata
Komering Rivers
Padang-Sugihan Wildlife
75,000 ha
Conservation
Ø Illegal logging in the
Ø Dominant vegetation are those
Declared as a
Reserve, South Sumatra:
education
swamp forest
in the peat swamp forest; with
Wildlife Reserve
Peat swamp forest, sampy
Ø Poaching of the
abundant ferns and orchids
(75,000 ha)
grassland, rivering swamp forest
Sambar deer and
Ø Many species of waterfowl
and drier Melaleuca forest, all of
monitor lizards
including the endangered
which are periodically flooded;
Ø Clearance for
white-winged wood duck
east and west borders of the
settlement
Cairina scutulata, the rare
reserve are the Sugihan and
Storm's stork Ciconia stormi;
Padang Rivers, resp, and which
11 species of kingfisher;
are very acidic and heavily
raptorial birds include Haliastur
stained with tannins, among
indus, Haliaeetus lecogaster,
others
Ichthyophaga nana and I.
Ichthyaetus, and fish owl
Ketupa ketupo
Mammalian fauna: Panthera tigris
sumatrae, felis bengalensis, F.
viverrina, elephas maximus
sumatranus, Helarctos malayanus,
Lutra sumatrana, Aonyx cinerea,
Paguma larvata, Cynogale
bennettii, Hylobates agilis, Macaca
nemestrima, M. fascicularis,
Presbitys cristatus, Tragulus napu,
T. javanicus, Sus scrofa, S.
barbatus, Cervus unicolor

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Indonesia (con't)
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disturbances
Biodiversity
Conservation
social values
& threats
measures
taken
Pulau Betet, South Sumatra:
About 10,000
Important as
Ø Illegal logging
Ø Mangrove forest dominated by
None
Large island with mangrove
ha
nursery ground
Ø Collection of eggs of
Rhizophora and Bruguiera
forests, intertidal mudflats and
for fish and
waterbirds for food
Ø Important area for resident and
peat swamp forests
shellfish
migratory waterfowl; at least 30
species
Ø Estuarine crocodile Crocodylus
porosus
Banyuasin Musi River Delta,
150,000 to
Ø Fisheries
Ø Reclamation
Ø Over 30 species of mangrove;
None
South Sumatra:
200,000 ha
especially
Ø Logging
freshwater swamp forests, peat
Large delta system of the
shrimps
Ø Disturbance of
swamp forests, and grassy marshes
Banyuasin and Musi rivers with
and
breeding colonies of
Ø 18 species of large waterbirds and
extensive mangrove systems,
prawns,
waterbirds
20 species of migratory shorebirds;
intertidal mudflats
and
Ø Hunting
3 species of birds of prey
cockles
Ø Forest fires
Ø 10 mammal species
Ø Timber
Ø Crocodyllus porosus, turtle Chitra
indica, Pelochelys bibronii
Sungai Lalan, South Sumatra:
586,417 ha
Fisheries
Ø Logging
Ø Mangrove, freshwater swamp and
None
Extensive mangrove swamps
including
Ø Forest clearance for
peat swamp forest species
and intertidal mudflats
80,000 of
transmigration
Ø At least 12 fish species; unknown
swamp forest
schemes
number of waterfowl species; about
Ø Crocodile hunting
5 mammal species; 5 reptile
Ø Pollution and
species
disturbance from boat
traffic

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Indonesia (con't)
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disturbances
Biodiversity
Conservation
social values
& threats
measures taken
Berbak Game Reserve,
175,000 ha
Ø Unique Kubu
Ø Drainage of the peat
Ø 150 species of trees
Protected as a
Sumatra:
tribe of hunter-
swamp by drainage
Ø at least 34 species of freshwater
game reserve
One of the largest swamp forest
gatherers
canals
fishes and brackishwater water
since 1935
reserves, both peat and
Ø Peat swamp is
Ø Illegal logging
fishes
freshwater types.
an important
Ø Disturbance of the
Ø at least 24 species of shorebirds
natural water
roosts of migratory
Ø about 21 mammal species
storage during
shorebirds
Ø at least 16 reptile species
dry season
Ø Capture of freshwater
turtles
Ø Forest fires
Kerumutan Baru, Riau
120,000 ha
No information
Ø agricultural
Ø Peat swamp forest with wet
Protected as a
Province: large reserve with
encroachment
lowland forest
Nature Reserve
extensive peat swamp forests
Ø Illegal hunting
Ø At least 7 mammal species
(Cagar Alam)
and a small area of dry-land
Ø Logging
Ø Unknown number of waterfowl
forest; with about 5 rivers
species
crossing through it.
Danau Bawah and Pulau
23,750 ha
Ø High aesthetic
Ø Land clearance for
Ø Extensive Shorea and Gonstylus
Protected as a
Besar, Riau Province:
values
transmigration
bancanus swamp forests
nature reserve
Peat swamp forests with two
Ø Rich genetic
Ø Logging
Ø Rich in wildlife
since 1979
freshwater lakes and an island in
resources
Ø Oil exploration
one of the lakes.
Ø Road construction
Siak Kecil, Riau Province:
c. 100,000
No information
Ø Logging
Ø 30 species of peat swamp trees
None
System of small freshwater lakes
ha
Ø Oil exploitation
Ø unknown no. of waterfowl
in a large area of peat swamp
species
and freshwater swamp forests
Ø important habitat for rare and
endangered mammals
Ø breeding area for false gharial
Tomistoma schlegelii

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Indonesia (con't)
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disturbances
Biodiversity
Conservation
social values
& threats
measures taken
Bakau Selat Dumai, Riau
60,000 ha
Fisheries
Ø Settlements
Ø Mangrove and peat swamp tree
None
Province: large area of rich and
Ø Logging
species
undisturbed mangrove forest and
Ø Rich in waterbirds and wildlife;
peat swamp forest.
no species inventory
Ijen Merapi Ungup, East Java:
Nature
Area of geological
Ø Manmade fires
Ø With lowland and montane
Nature reserve
A small crater lake with many
reserve is
and botanical
Ø Sulphur mining
forests; grasslands
established in
sulphur fumerols, 50 ha in area;
2,560 ha
interest
Ø Intense agriculture
Ø Rich fauna but information is
1920
most with climax forest.
little
Pleihari Tanah Laut, South
35,000 ha
Ø Fisheries
Ø Wood cutting
Ø Mangrove forests, grasslands
Protected as a
Kalimantan: low-lying coastal
Ø Water supply
Ø Hunting of deer
and swamp forest, heath forest
Wildlife Reserve
area with 40% grassland and
Ø Shifting cultivation
Ø Waterfowl and migratory
since 1974
shrub land and 50% swamp
Ø Grazing of domestic
shorebirds
livestock
Ø Mammals
Ø Marine turtles, estuarine
crocodile and monitor lizard
Danau Bankau and other
480,000 ha
Ø Deep water
Ø Reclamation
Ø Most important freshwater
None
swamps in Barito Basin, South
swamps for
Ø Fishing
swamp in Kalimantan
Kalimantan:
natural flood
Ø Reed cutting
Ø Very important area for
Alluvial plain of the lower Barito
control
Ø Bird trapping
waterbirds (at least 27 species)
Basin; complex system of levees
Ø Fisheries
Ø Forest clearance
and back-swamps, deep water
swamps; peat swampts; two
open water lakes Danau Bankau
and Danau Panggang
Kelompok Hutan Kahayan,
150,000 ha
Ø Marine
Ø Timber cutting
Ø Mangrove forest, freshwater and
None
Central Kalimantan: large area of
fisheries
Ø Forest clearance for
peat swamp forests
swamp forest (peat, freshwater,
agriculture
Ø No information on fauna
mangrove)
Indonesia (con't)
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disturbances
Biodiversity
Conservation

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UNEP SCS/TDA
Page 87
social values
& threats
measures taken
Tanjung Putting National Park,
Area of
Important
Ø Illegal cutting
Ø Mangrove, peat and freshwater
Protected as a
Central Kalimantan: vast low
wetlands
genetic
Ø Illegal hunting and
swamp species, kerangas forest
Biosphere
lying area of mangrove, peat and
unknown;
resource
fishing
Ø Very rich fauna
Reserve in
freshwater swamp forests and
296,800 ha out
Ø Poaching of
January 1977 and
kerangas forest
of official area
waterfowl eggs
a National Park in
of 300,040 ha
October 1982
has been
mapped
Tanjung Penghujan, Central
40,000 ha
High potential
Tree felling for wood
Ø Mangroves and freshwater
None
Kalimantan: swampy coastal
for outdoor
swamp forest
area bordered by a fringe of
creation
Ø Rich wildlife, but little
mangrove forest and backed by
information; proboscis monkey
freshwater swamp forest
Nasalis larvatus present
Muara Kendawangan, West
c. 150,000 ha:
No information
None known; uninhabited
Ø Mangrove, freshwater and peat
None; proposal
Kalimantan: complete seral
75,000 ha of
swamp forests
for establishing a
succession of lowland habitats
freshwater
Ø Rich in wildlife including
Nature Reserve
from coastal sand bars, mudflats
swamps;
mammals and birds
approved but not
and mangrove forest through
65,000 ha of
implemented
swamp forest to dry lowland
peat swamps;
forest
10,000 ha of
mangroves

---

UNEP SCS/TDA
Page 88
Indonesia (con't)
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disturbances
Biodiversity
Conservation
social values
& threats
measures taken
Gunung Palung and
c. 130,000 ha:
Ø High potential
Ø Logging
Ø Mangroves, freshwater and peat
A Na ture
surrounding swamps, West
7,000 ha
for outdoor
Ø Shifting cultivation
swamp forests, wet lowland
Monument
Kalimantan: relatively
mangrove forest;
recreation
forests
30,000 ha in area
undisturbed hill and lowland
20,000 ha of
Ø conservation
Ø 192 species of birds
was estabished in
forest including mangroves,
freshwater swamp
education
Ø mammals: 2 insectivore sp; 4
1930's; upgraded
freshwater swamp forest, peat
forest; 30,000 ha
chiropteran sp, 7 primate sp, 7
to Nature
swamp forest and wet lowland peat swamps;
rodent sp, 2 carnivore sp, 5
Reserve and
forest on alluvium.
5,000 ha wet
ungulate sp.
renotified in 1981;
lowland forest;
Ø 3 reptile sp
proposal to
62,000 ha moist
extend to a total
lowlar dipterocarp
area of 100,000
forest; 1,000 ha
ha made
montane forest;
5,000 wet hill
forest
Hutan Sambas, West
120,000 ha:
Ø potential for
Ø Uncontrolled
Ø Mangrove forest, peat swamp
None
Kalimantan: lowland forest
43,000 ha of
an
logging
forest, freshwater swamp forest,
including mangrove forest,
mangrove forest;
international
Ø Hunting
moist lowland dipterocarp forest
100 ha of beach forest; peat
100 beach forest;
reserve
Ø Poaching of sea
Ø Rich in wildlife; large and
swamps and moist lowland
rest are peat
linking up
turtle eggs
important sea turtle nesting
dipterocarp forest
swamps and moist
with
Ø Shifting agriculture
beaches
lowland
Samunsam
dipterocarp forest
Reserve in
Sarawak

---

UNEP SCS/TDA
Page 89
Country:
Malaysia
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disturbances
Biodiversity
Conservation
social values
& threats
measures taken
Southeast Pahang
325,000 ha including
Ø Flood mitigation
Ø Reclamation for
Ø largest contiguous area
80,000 ha of swamp
Swamp Forests,
at least 90,000 of peat
Ø Water reservoir
agriculture and
of peat swamp forest
forest are Forest
Pahang: swamp forest
swamp forests
Ø Timber source
development
Ø most lowland forest
Reserves
consisting of peat
Ø Gene pool for
Ø logging
animals occur
swamps, freshwater
commercially
Ø birds include 4 sp of
swamps
important plant
hornbills, 5 sp of
species
kingfishers
Ø pythons and freshwater
turtles
Sedili Kecil Swamp
c. 5,000 ha
Ø Considerable
Ø Logging
Ø Freshwater swamp
Most of the area falls
Forest, eastern Johor:
timber value
Ø Aquaculture
forest
within the
seasonally flooded
Ø Flood mitigation
development
Ø No information on
Chandangan Forest
freshwater swamp forest
Ø Scientific interest
fauna
Reserve
Klias Peninsula, Sabah:
90,000 ha: 60,700 ha
Ø Fisheries
Logging
Ø Coastal mangrove
Five forest reserves
Continuous flat area of
of peat swamp;
including finfish
forest, nipa swamp,
were established with
peat swamp, freshwater
freshwater alluvium of
and prawns
freshwater and peat
a total area of 31,053
alluvium, and mangroves
14,500 ha; coastal
Ø Commercially
swamp forest,
ha; In 1980, 30,900
transitional swamp
valuable timber
grassland
ha of national park
(28,500 ha); mangrove
Supports highest known
were degazetted
(14,500 ha)
concentration of
migratory ducks
Tempasuk Plain,
Over 13,000 ha
Ø Rice-growing and
Ø Large-scale
Ø Outstanding variety of
12,200 ha protected
Sabah: freshwater
including 12,200 ha in
livestock
drainage of the
wetland habitats
as Kota Belud Bird
wetland
Kota Belud Bird
production
swamp for
Ø Waterfowl: 14 sp of
Sanctuary
Sanctuary
Ø High potential for
agriculture
herons and egrets; 7 sp
tourism and
Ø Conversion of
of ducks, 8 sp of rails
scientific research
grazing land to
and crakes; 30 sp of
aquaculture ponds
shorebirds, 8 sp of
Ø Illegal hunting
terns
Ø Shifting cultivation
Malaysia (con't)

---

UNEP SCS/TDA
Page 90
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disturbances
Biodiversity
Conservation
social values
& threats
measures taken
The Lower Reaches of
300,000 ha
Ø Fisheries
Ø Infrastructure for
Ø most highly developed
Entire area is
the Baram River
Ø Flood control
flood control
peat swamp
included in State
System, Sarawak: a
thorugh the
Ø Hunting of wildlife
Ø 43 sp of fishes
Forest Reserves
major river with large
domed peat
Ø logging
Ø rare reptiles
catchment area; large
swamps
areas of peat swamp
forest; most highly
developed peat swamps
Loagan Bunut,
19,000 ha
Ø Fisheries
Ø Logging
Ø No information on flora
Forests are protected
Sarawak: seasonal
Ø Potential for
Ø Intensive fishing
Ø At least 10 sp of fish
in the Lower Baram
freshwater lake, Loagan
rotational forestry,
Ø Disturbance
Ø Breeding colonies of
Forest Reserve and
Bunut (Sarawak's largest
provided rotation
because of road
Phalacrocorax carbo
Marudi Forest
freshwater lake) and
period were not
access
and Anhinga
Reserve
surrounding areas of
less than 70 years
melanogaster
seasonally flooded forest
Third Division Swamp
340,000 ha
Ø Domed peat
Ø Overexploitation of
Ø Peat swamp forest of
All within Protected
Forest, Sarawak: a vast
swamps are
the peat swamp
various types;
Forests and Forest
tract of peat swamp
natural flood
forest
mangrove forest
Reserves
forest, much of which is
mitigation
Ø Forest conversion
Ø No information on
production forest that is
structures
for alternative uses
fauna
largely exploited
Ø Valuable timber
source
Matu-Daro and Sibu
267,000 ha
Mangroves support
Ø Tree felling for
Ø Mangrove forest, nipa
Most of the area is
Swamp Forest,
important commercial
woodchips
swamp, peat swamp
within Protected
Sarawak: a large block
inshore and offshore
Ø Reclamation for
forest
Forests
of peat swamp forest
fishery
agriculture
Ø Important for migratory
with coastal mangroves
shorebirds
and nipa

---

UNEP SCS/TDA
Page 91
Malaysia (con't)
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disturbances
Biodiversity
Conservation
social values
& threats
measures taken
Maludam Swamp
c. 125,000 ha
Ø Source of timber
Non-sustainable
Ø Virgin peat swamp forest
About 26,500 ha of
Forest, Sarawak: a
Ø Peat swamp
logging
Ø Important for migratory
forest are included in
peninsula of flat peat
important in flood
shorebirds
the Triso Protected
swamp forest between
mitigation
Ø Important for the red, black and
Forest and 16,800 ha
the Saribas, Layar and
Ø Freshwater fishery
white form of the banded langur
in the Maludam
Lupar Rivers
Presbytis melalophos cruciger
Forest Reserve
Sadong Swamp Forest,
17,200 ha
Ø Valuable source of
Overexploitation of
Ø Peat swamp forest and mixed
The whole site is
Sarawak: large expanse
timber
forest resources
dipterocarp forest
within the Sadong
of flat low-lying peat
Ø Peat swamps for
Ø Occurrence of orang-utans
Forest Reserve
swamp forest drained by
flood control
Pongo pygmaeus, endangered
the Batang Sadong and
flat headed cat Felis planiceps
the Sungei Simunjan
and the earless monitor lizard
Lanthanotus borneensis
Samunsam Wildlife
20,902 ha
Ø Mangroves support
Ø Clearance of
Ø 6 types of mangrove forests
6,092 ha protected as
Sanctuary, Sarawak:
important fisheries
kerangas for
Ø empran forests, mixed
Samunsam Wildlife
entire water catchment
Ø Valuable source of
agriculture
dipterocarp lowland rainforest
Sanctuary in 1979.
area of the Samunsam
timber and charcoal
Ø Timber
and kerangas forest
River from the mangrove
exploitation
Ø 24 sp of freshwater species;
and nipa swamps of the
Ø Infrastructure for
240 species of birds of which
lower reaches through
power and
50 species are waterfowl sp.
kerangas and mized
transportation
Ø 70 sp of mammals, including 4
dipterocarp forest
rare species
Ø 35 sp of reptiles
Ø 20 sp of amphibians

---

UNEP SCS/TDA
Page 92
Country:
Philippines
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disturbances
Biodiversity
Conservation
social values
& threats
measures taken
Buguey wetlands, Cagayan,
c. 14,400 ha (about
Ø Fisheries
Ø Conversion to
Ø nipa swamp,
None
northern Luzon: a complex of
80% of Buguey
Ø Rice production
shrimp and fish
mangrove species
coastal lagoons, freshwater
municipality)
ponds
and Ipomoea
marshes, brackish and saline
Ø Hunting of
reptans
marshes, mangrove swamps
waterfowl
Ø important staging
and intertidal mudflats;
Ø Pesticide pollution
and wintering area
located east of the mouth of
from agriculture
for migratory
Cagayan River.
waterfowl
Pangasinan wetlands,
c. 3,000 ha
Ø Fisheries
Mangrove loss in favor
Ø remnants of
Mangrove revegetation
Central Luzon: large area of
Ø Rice production
of aquaculture
mangrove
project was launched in
fish ponds and rice paddies
Ø
Ø 20 species of
1987.
with adjacent intertidal
shorebirds
mudflats; over 10 rivers and
creeks, all branches of the
Agno River, run through the
wetland and drain into
Lingayen Gulf; lies at the
edge of the alluvial plains of
Central Luzon
Candaba swamp, Central
32,000 ha
Ø Agriculture
Ø Conversion into
Ø Patches of nipa and
None
Luzon: a complex of
Ø Fisheries
fishponds
mangrove swamps
freshwater ponds, swamps
production
Ø Drainage to
Ø 60 species of birds
and marshes with seasonally
Ø Flood control
increase
which feed and
flooded grassland, arable land
Ø Source of
agricultural area
roost in the swamp
and palm savanna on a vast
irrigation water
Ø Illegal hunting of
area
alluvial flood plain
Ø Local spot for bird
waterfowl
watchers and
naturalists

---

UNEP SCS/TDA
Page 93
Philippines (Con't)
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disturbances
Biodiversity
Conservation
social values
& threats
measures taken
Laguna de Bay, Luzon:
Watershed area
Ø Fisheries
Ø Freshwater aquaculture
Ø Eichhornia
Ø Haribon Foundation
Largest lake in the Philippnes
is 382,000 ha
Ø Source of
leading to high organic
crassipes, marsh
launched a "Save
with a shoreline of aboutr 220
excluding the
potable
loading and deteriorating
vegetation
the Lake
km; drains through the
area of the lake
freshwater
water quality
Ø 23 native fish
Movement"
Napindan Channel into the
Ø Conflict between
species belonging
Ø No protected areas
Marikina River which joins the
aquaculture and capture
to 16 families
have been
Pasig River and out into
fisheries
Ø wide variety of
established
Manila Bay; highly eutrophic;
Ø Industrial, agricultural and
waterfowl
fed by 21 small rivers and
domestic pollution
streams, with the total inflow
Ø Extensive reclamation for
allowing for flushing the lake
industrial, residential and
once a year
recreational estates
Ø Deforestation
Taal Lake, Luzon: a large
23,424 ha
Ø Recreation
Ø Urban encroachment
Ø Lake flora
Ø Volcanic island is a
caldera lake with an island;
Ø Fisheries
Ø Siltation
Ø Rich crustacean,
National Park
lake is fresh and oligotrophic;
Ø Introduction of exotic fish
molluscan and fish
established in 1967
fed by a number of streams
species
fauna and a
Ø Lake itself is not
rising on the Tagaytay Ridge
Ø Volcanic activity
number of which
protected
and drains into Pansipit River
are is endemic
which flows out to Balayan
Bay.
Lake Manguao, Palawan:
643 ha
No information
No information
Ø No information on
The whole of Palawan
A very deep freshwater lake
flora
Island has been
fed by several small rivers
Ø Crocodylus porosus
declared a wildlife
and local run-off
is believed to occur
preserve
in the lake

---

UNEP SCS/TDA
Page 94
Country:
Thailand
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disturbances
Biodiversity
Conservation
social values
& threats
measures taken
Yom River Floodplain, northern
c. 50,000 ha
Ø Major
Ø Illegal hunting of
Ø Natural grassland,
Ø Nong Nam Kao
Thailand: extensive alluvial
recreational
waterbirds
mixed deciduous or
Non-Hunting Area
basin; intensively cultivated;
area
Ø Intensive agriculture
dry dipterocarp
(57.3 ha)
scattered are many small
Ø Fish farming
Ø Flood control works
woodland
established
permanent swamps
Ø Duck migration
area
Beung Si Fai, northern Thailand:
810 ha
Ø Recreation and
None known
Ø Small areas of
Fishing is not allowed in
a permanent, freshwater lake, its
tourism
Arundo donax and
24 ha of the lake
associated marshes and
Ø Lake a major
Cyperus spp.
adjacent rice paddies; fed by
social amenity
Ø Wintering waterfowl
overspill from the River Nan
during the late rainy season
Beung Boraphet, northern
13,000 ha
Ø Fisheries
Ø Harvest of emergent
Ø Dense mats of
About 45,000 ha
Thailand: a large freshwater lake
Ø Source of
vegetation including
floating vegetation
including the lake and
along the east bank of the Mae
irrigation water
Phragmites
Ø Important site for
surrounding paddy
Nam Nan; surrounded by rice
Ø Tourism
Ø Illegal trapping of
wintering ducks in
declared as a Non-
paddies; formed in 1930 by the
waterfowl
Thailand
Hunting Area in 1975.
damming of a freshwater swamp
Ø Agricultural pollution
in order to develop the fishery
including pesticides
Southern Central Plains,
1,900,000 ha
Ø Agriculture
Ø Conversion of marginal
Ø Mats of low
Ø About 360 ha of
central Thailand: huge area of
Ø Aquaculture of
areas to agriculture
grasses, floating
non-hunting areas
intensively cultivaled land with
Macrobrachium Ø Reclamation for
aquatic vegetation
Ø Some receive de
numerous small lakes and
Ø Waterways for
settlement
Ø Important breeding
facto protection,
marshes; plains received water
communication
area for waterfowl
such as those near
from four major rivers: the Bang
and transport
and roost for
temples or they are
Pakong, Chao Phraya, Tachin
wintering birds
within private land
and lower reaches of the Mae
Klong.
Thailand (con't)
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disturbances
Biodiversity
Conservation
social values
& threats
measures taken

---

UNEP SCS/TDA
Page 95
Khao Sam Roi Yot
13,000 ha
Ø Freshwater and
Ø Aquaculture
Ø Dominant freshwater
Most of the area
NationalPark, southern Thailand:
brackishwater
Ø Encroachment by
marsh flora is Phragmites
protected as a
an area of coastal marshes,
fisheries
agriculture
australis; mangroves,
National park
paddies; includes the largest
Ø Tourism
Ø Illegal hunting of wildlife
mixed deciduous forest
freshwater marsh in Thailand
Ø Tourism
Ø 237 sp of birds
(6,000 ha)
Tapi River and Nong Tung
6,450 ha
Ø Fisheries
Ø Gradual intensification
Ø emergent aquatic plants;
An area of 2,960 ha
Tong Non-Hunting Area,
Ø Cattle grazing
of agriculture
lowland evergreen scrub
declared as the Nong
southern Thailand: a complex of
Ø Source of
Ø Man-made burning of
forest
Tung Tong Non-
swamps and grasslands along
irrigation water
grasslands
Hunting Area in 1975
the Tapi River; principal inflow
Ø Illegal hunting
from the catchment of the Tapi
River
Thale Noi Non-Hunting Area,
Melaleuca forest Ø Fisheries
Ø Contnued clearance of
Ø Floating and emergent
A non-hunting area;
southern Thailand: a roughly
covers 4.220
Ø Harves of
Melaleuca for charcoal
plants; marsh vegetation;
Melaleuca forest is a
circular lake surrounded by open ha; grasslands
aquatic plants
Ø Illegal hunting of
Melaleuca woodland
National Reserve
swamp vegetation, sedge beds
and sedge
Ø Capture and
wildlife, and their eggs
Ø 186 sp of birds
Forest where cutting
and rice paddies, and an
beds, 10,870
sale of snakes
Ø Domestic and
Ø otter Lutrra sp and terrapin
is forbidden
extensive Melaleuca swamp
ha; lake area is
Ø Tourism
agricultural waste
Balangur baska occur
forest
30,000 ha
Lake Songkhla, southern
104,000 ha
Ø capture and
Ø Industrialization and
Ø 40 sp of edible fish
Thale Sap Non-
Thailand: a huge shallow coastal
culture fisheries
development
Ø 29 sp of aquatic plants
Hunting Area covers
lagoon of fresh to brackish water
Ø Recreational
Ø Illegal hunting
Ø 48 species of land plants
31,500 ha
which opens to the sea by a
and educational
Ø Burning or cutting of
Ø 140 sp of birds
narrow channel; fed by 1000
values
emergent vegetation
Ø river terrapins and otters
streams and drains 8,000 km2 of
Ø Pumping of irrigation
catchment
water causing salinity
intrusion
Pa Phru, southern Thailand: a
c. 34,600 ha
Ø Harvest of forest Ø Drainage to minimize
Ø Over 50 plant species
16,000 ha as Non-
large depression supporting
products
flooding
reported as new to
Hunting Area;
9,700 ha of primary peat swamp
Ø Research and
Ø Unsustainable
thailand; 66 tree species in
remaining forest as
forest near 14,600 ha of
educational use
development projects
29 families
National Reserve
Melaleuca woodland and scrub;
Ø Culturally ethnic
Ø Cutting and burning to
Ø 16 sp of fish lowland
Forest
and 9,800 of degraded
population
free up land for
forest birds, mammals and
grasslands
agriculture
reptiles
Country:
Viet Nam
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disturbances
Biodiversity
Conservation
social values
& threats
measures taken

---

UNEP SCS/TDA
Page 96
Ba Be Lake, Cao Bang
450 ha
Ø Regulates
Illegal hunting
Ø Tropical rain forest,
Declared a National
Province: freshwater lake in a
water supply
mountain lake vegetation
Park in 1985
limestone mountain area,
Ø Tourism
Ø 17 native sp of fish
connected to the Nang River
Ø 100 sp of birds
by a channel
Ø 30 sp of mammals
Thac Ba Reservoir, Hoang
23,400 ha
Ø Water for
Siltation
Ø Reed beds, marsh
Ø Restrictions on
Lien Son Province: large water
irrigation and
grasses and low shrubs
cultivation along
storage reservoir
power
Ø Migration route of
the steep slopes
generation
waterfowl
Ø Reafforestation
Ø Fisheries
Chu Lake, Vin Phu Province:
300 ha
Small fisheries
No information
Ø Aquatic plants and
No information
small natural freshwater lake
marsh grasses, shrubs
fed by the Van and Thoi
Ø Waterfowl migration
streams
Chinh Cong, Vin Phu
400 ha
Ø Agriculture
Ø Drainage for
Ø Aquatic plants
None
Province: small, natural
Ø Irrigation
agriculture
Ø Important wintering area
freshwater lake in the Red
Ø Aquaculture
Ø Overexploitation
for migratory waterfowl
River Basin fed by Ca and Ky
streams
Nui Coc Reservoir, Bac Thai
2,580 ha
Ø Fisheries
Ø Forest clearance
Ø Aquatic vegetation,
Ø Protected Area
Province: water storage
Ø Irrigation
for wood,
shrub and secondary
as of 1985
reservoir constructed in 1977
Ø Outdoor
construction and
forest
Ø Reafforestation
on the Cong River, a tributary
recreation
agriculture
Ø 10 native fish sp
program around
of the Red River
Ø Heavy grazing
Ø 40 sp of birds
reservoir
by livestock
Ø 15 sp of mammals
Vac Swamp, Vin Phu
250 ha
Ø Small
No information
Ø Aquatic plants, marsh
A reserve covering
Province: a freshwater swamp
fisheries
grasses
the swamp has been
fed by the Ca Lo and Cau Bon
Ø Irrigation
Ø No information on fauna
established
Rivers in the Red River Basin
Ø Resort area
Viet Nam (con't)
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disturbances
Biodiversity
Conservation
social values
& threats
measures taken
Song Da Reservoir, ha Son
72,800 ha
Ø Power
Cultivation on steep
Too young and of little value
Ø Water catchment
Binh Province: a large water
generation
slopes of the
to wildlife
area is protected
storage reservoir constructed
Ø Irrigation
catchment area
Ø Reafforestion

---

UNEP SCS/TDA
Page 97
in 1985 on the Da River for
Ø Major
around the
power generation, irrigation,
fisheries
reservoir
aquaculture and water
Ø Tourism
regulation
Ho Tay, Hanoi: natural
413 ha
Ø Fisheries
Ø Pollution
Ø Aquatic plants, marsh
Restrict waste water
freshwater lake on the south
Ø Recreation
Ø Reclamation for
vegetation
inflow into the lake
bank of the Red River
urban
Ø Staging and wintering
development
area for migratory birds
Cam Son Reservoir, ha Bac
2,620 ha
Ø Power
Use of poisons and
Ø Sanctuary for native
Reafforestion in the
Province: a water storage
generation
explosives to catch
stream fishes
water catchment
reservoir made in 1960 by a
Ø Fisheries
fish
Ø Migratory waterfowl
area
dam on Hoa River, a tributary
of the Thuong River
Ke Go Reservoir, Nghe Tinh
2,500 ha
Ø Irrigation
Cultivation of
Migratory waterfowl
Ø Restrictions on
Province: water storage
Ø Fisheries
cassava and other
cultivation
reservoir on the Ba Mo River
Ø Hydropower
crops causing
Ø Reafforestation
siltation
Bau Xen Lake, Binh Tri Thien
200 ha
Ø Irrigation
No information
Migratory waterfowl
None
Province: a small freshwater
Ø Fisheries
lake 4 km from the sea
Ø Water supply
Ø Recreation
Bien Ho Lake, Lai-Kontum
600 ha
Ø Small
Ø Siltation
Ø Rich fish fauna
Ø Measures taken
Province: natural freshwater
fisheries
Ø Oil pollution from
Ø Variety of waterfowl
to maintain water
lake on a high plateau formed
Ø Potable water
motor boats
quality
by 3-4 volcanic craters
source
Ø Replanting of
Ø Irrigation
bare hillsides

---

UNEP SCS/TDA
Page 98
Viet Nam (con't)
Site description
Area
Economic &
Disturbances
Biodiversity
Conservation
social values
& threats
measures taken
Lak Lake, Dak Lak Province: a
500 ha
Ø Small fisheries
Siltation because of
Ø Reed beds, swamp
None
natural freshwater lake in the
Ø Irrigation
shore cultivation
vegetation
swamp region of the Dak Lak
Ø waterfowl
High Plateau
Nam Cat Tien, Dong Nai
2,500 ha
Potential for
Ø Excessive
Ø Grassland, swamp
Wetland and
Province: small permanent
scientific research,
hunting
forest, humid evergreen
surrounding forests
freshwater lake and a large
conservation
Ø Manmade fires
forest, semi-evergreen
are protected in the
area of seasonal lakes and
education and
Ø Population
and deciduous forest; 62
Nam Cat tien Forest
marshes
tourism
growth and
sp of orchids
Reserve (36,500 ha)
consequent
Ø Resident and migratory
established in 1978.
exploitation
waterfowl
Ø Mammals and reptiles
Bien Lac, Thuan Hai Province:
2,000 ha
Fisheries
Overexploitation of
No information on flora and
Protected Area
a group of natural freshwater
during wet
living resources
fauna
covers Bien Lac and
lakes and associated
season
surrounding forests,
marshlands, surrounded by
total area of 10,025
seasonally flooded grassland
ha
and forest
Dong Thap Muoi: large area
300,000 ha
Ø Contains the
Ø Settlement
Ø Swamp and grassland
Tram Chim Sarus
of seasonally flooded alluvial
largest area of
Ø Agriculture
vegetation; wild rice
Crane Reserve
plains on the north bank of the
floating rice in
Ø Overexploitation
Ø Resident and migratory
established in 1986
Mekong
the Mekong
of wildlife
waterfowl
(9,000 ha)
Delta
Ø Mammals and reptiles
Ø Fisheries
Ø Natural flood
basin
Minh Hai Melaleuca Forest,
163,000 ha
Ø Timber products
Ø Manmade fires
Ø 40 sp of aquatic plants
Vo Doi Protected
Minh Hai Province: large area
Ø Fisheries
Ø Overexploitation
Ø 23 sp of mammals
Forest of 3,945 ha in
of seasonally flooded
Ø Potential for
of living
Ø 91 bird sp
the U Minh ha forest
Melaleuca swamp forest
nature tourism
resources
Ø 36 reptile sp
was established in
Ø 11 sp of amphibians
1985

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UNEP SCS/TDA
Page 99
4
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